Sermon and Worship Resources (2024)

Job 38:1--41:34 · The Lord Speaks

1 Then the Lord answered Job out of the storm. He said:

2 "Who is this that darkens my counsel with words without knowledge?

3 Brace yourself like a man; I will question you, and you shall answer me.

4 "Where were you when I laid the earth's foundation? Tell me, if you understand.

5 Who marked off its dimensions? Surely you know! Who stretched a measuring line across it?

6 On what were its footings set, or who laid its cornerstone-

7 while the morning stars sang together and all the angels shouted for joy?

8 "Who shut up the sea behind doors when it burst forth from the womb,

9 when I made the clouds its garment and wrapped it in thick darkness,

10 when I fixed limits for it and set its doors and bars in place,

11 when I said, 'This far you may come and no farther; here is where your proud waves halt'?

12 "Have you ever given orders to the morning, or shown the dawn its place,

13 that it might take the earth by the edges and shake the wicked out of it?

14 The earth takes shape like clay under a seal; its features stand out like those of a garment.

15 The wicked are denied their light, and their upraised arm is broken.

16 "Have you journeyed to the springs of the sea or walked in the recesses of the deep?

17 Have the gates of death been shown to you? Have you seen the gates of the shadow of death ?

18 Have you comprehended the vast expanses of the earth? Tell me, if you know all this.

19 "What is the way to the abode of light? And where does darkness reside?

20 Can you take them to their places? Do you know the paths to their dwellings?

21 Surely you know, for you were already born! You have lived so many years!

22 "Have you entered the storehouses of the snow or seen the storehouses of the hail,

23 which I reserve for times of trouble, for days of war and battle?

24 What is the way to the place where the lightning is dispersed, or the place where the east winds are scattered over the earth?

25 Who cuts a channel for the torrents of rain, and a path for the thunderstorm,

26 to water a land where no man lives, a desert with no one in it,

27 to satisfy a desolate wasteland and make it sprout with grass?

28 Does the rain have a father? Who fathers the drops of dew?

29 From whose womb comes the ice? Who gives birth to the frost from the heavens

30 when the waters become hard as stone, when the surface of the deep is frozen?

31 "Can you bind the beautiful Pleiades? Can you loose the cords of Orion?

32 Can you bring forth the constellations in their seasons or lead out the Bear with its cubs?

33 Do you know the laws of the heavens? Can you set up God's dominion over the earth?

34 "Can you raise your voice to the clouds and cover yourself with a flood of water?

35 Do you send the lightning bolts on their way? Do they report to you, 'Here we are'?

36 Who endowed the heart with wisdom or gave understanding to the mind ?

37 Who has the wisdom to count the clouds? Who can tip over the water jars of the heavens

38 when the dust becomes hard and the clods of earth stick together?

39 "Do you hunt the prey for the lioness and satisfy the hunger of the lions

40 when they crouch in their dens or lie in wait in a thicket?

41 Who provides food for the raven when its young cry out to God and wander about for lack of food?

1 "Do you know when the mountain goats give birth? Do you watch when the doe bears her fawn?

2 Do you count the months till they bear? Do you know the time they give birth?

3 They crouch down and bring forth their young; their labor pains are ended.

4 Their young thrive and grow strong in the wilds; they leave and do not return.

5 "Who let the wild donkey go free? Who untied his ropes?

6 I gave him the wasteland as his home, the salt flats as his habitat.

7 He laughs at the commotion in the town; he does not hear a driver's shout.

8 He ranges the hills for his pasture and searches for any green thing.

9 "Will the wild ox consent to serve you? Will he stay by your manger at night?

10 Can you hold him to the furrow with a harness? Will he till the valleys behind you?

11 Will you rely on him for his great strength? Will you leave your heavy work to him?

12 Can you trust him to bring in your grain and gather it to your threshing floor?

13 "The wings of the ostrich flap joyfully, but they cannot compare with the pinions and feathers of the stork.

14 She lays her eggs on the ground and lets them warm in the sand,

15 unmindful that a foot may crush them, that some wild animal may trample them.

16 She treats her young harshly, as if they were not hers; she cares not that her labor was in vain,

17 for God did not endow her with wisdom or give her a share of good sense.

18 Yet when she spreads her feathers to run, she laughs at horse and rider.

19 "Do you give the horse his strength or clothe his neck with a flowing mane?

20 Do you make him leap like a locust, striking terror with his proud snorting?

21 He paws fiercely, rejoicing in his strength, and charges into the fray.

22 He laughs at fear, afraid of nothing; he does not shy away from the sword.

23 The quiver rattles against his side, along with the flashing spear and lance.

24 In frenzied excitement he eats up the ground; he cannot stand still when the trumpet sounds.

25 At the blast of the trumpet he snorts, 'Aha!' He catches the scent of battle from afar, the shout of commanders and the battle cry.

26 "Does the hawk take flight by your wisdom and spread his wings toward the south?

27 Does the eagle soar at your command and build his nest on high?

28 He dwells on a cliff and stays there at night; a rocky crag is his stronghold.

29 From there he seeks out his food; his eyes detect it from afar.

30 His young ones feast on blood, and where the slain are, there is he."

1 The Lord said to Job:

2 "Will the one who contends with the Almighty correct him? Let him who accuses God answer him!"

3 Then Job answered the Lord :

4 "I am unworthy-how can I reply to you? I put my hand over my mouth.

5 I spoke once, but I have no answer- twice, but I will say no more."

6 Then the Lord spoke to Job out of the storm:

7 "Brace yourself like a man; I will question you, and you shall answer me.

8 "Would you discredit my justice? Would you condemn me to justify yourself?

9 Do you have an arm like God's, and can your voice thunder like his?

10 Then adorn yourself with glory and splendor, and clothe yourself in honor and majesty.

11 Unleash the fury of your wrath, look at every proud man and bring him low,

12 look at every proud man and humble him, crush the wicked where they stand.

13 Bury them all in the dust together; shroud their faces in the grave.

14 Then I myself will admit to you that your own right hand can save you.

15 "Look at the behemoth, which I made along with you and which feeds on grass like an ox.

16 What strength he has in his loins, what power in the muscles of his belly!

17 His tail sways like a cedar; the sinews of his thighs are close-knit.

18 His bones are tubes of bronze, his limbs like rods of iron.

19 He ranks first among the works of God, yet his Maker can approach him with his sword.

20 The hills bring him their produce, and all the wild animals play nearby.

21 Under the lotus plants he lies, hidden among the reeds in the marsh.

22 The lotuses conceal him in their shadow; the poplars by the stream surround him.

23 When the river rages, he is not alarmed; he is secure, though the Jordan should surge against his mouth.

24 Can anyone capture him by the eyes, or trap him and pierce his nose?

1 "Can you pull in the leviathan with a fishhook or tie down his tongue with a rope?

2 Can you put a cord through his nose or pierce his jaw with a hook?

3 Will he keep begging you for mercy? Will he speak to you with gentle words?

4 Will he make an agreement with you for you to take him as your slave for life?

5 Can you make a pet of him like a bird or put him on a leash for your girls?

6 Will traders barter for him? Will they divide him up among the merchants?

7 Can you fill his hide with harpoons or his head with fishing spears?

8 If you lay a hand on him, you will remember the struggle and never do it again!

9 Any hope of subduing him is false; the mere sight of him is overpowering.

10 No one is fierce enough to rouse him. Who then is able to stand against me?

11 Who has a claim against me that I must pay? Everything under heaven belongs to me.

12 "I will not fail to speak of his limbs, his strength and his graceful form.

13 Who can strip off his outer coat? Who would approach him with a bridle?

14 Who dares open the doors of his mouth, ringed about with his fearsome teeth?

15 His back has rows of shields tightly sealed together;

16 each is so close to the next that no air can pass between.

17 They are joined fast to one another; they cling together and cannot be parted.

18 His snorting throws out flashes of light; his eyes are like the rays of dawn.

19 Firebrands stream from his mouth; sparks of fire shoot out.

20 Smoke pours from his nostrils as from a boiling pot over a fire of reeds.

21 His breath sets coals ablaze, and flames dart from his mouth.

22 Strength resides in his neck; dismay goes before him.

23 The folds of his flesh are tightly joined; they are firm and immovable.

24 His chest is hard as rock, hard as a lower millstone.

25 When he rises up, the mighty are terrified; they retreat before his thrashing.

26 The sword that reaches him has no effect, nor does the spear or the dart or the javelin.

27 Iron he treats like straw and bronze like rotten wood.

28 Arrows do not make him flee; slingstones are like chaff to him.

29 A club seems to him but a piece of straw; he laughs at the rattling of the lance.

30 His undersides are jagged potsherds, leaving a trail in the mud like a threshing sledge.

31 He makes the depths churn like a boiling caldron and stirs up the sea like a pot of ointment.

32 Behind him he leaves a glistening wake; one would think the deep had white hair.

33 Nothing on earth is his equal- a creature without fear.

34 He looks down on all that are haughty; he is king over all that are proud."

The Lord Is The Creator God Of The Universe

Job 38:1--41:34

Bulletin Aid
by James Wilson

Sermon and Worship Resources (1)

Call To Worship
Leader: Let the universe resound with praise before the Lord God Almighty!
People: God is the wonderful Creator and Sustainer of the universe.
Leader: There is no power in all of creation like the power of the Almighty God.
People: Not in heaven or on earth is there an equal to God's infinite power.
Leader: Then let every knee bow and every heart sound forth in loving praise.
All: Blessed be the name of the Lord!

Collect
O God, when we consider the vastness of the universe we begin to comprehend how special we are to receive Your love and be made welcome in Your kingdom. Truly we love and praise You, Lord. In Christ we pray. Amen.

Prayer Of Confession
Lord, so often we have taken for granted the whole of creation and treated it as if we had a right to do whatever we pleased with it. And we have even tried to ignore the fact that You are truly the Creator God of all the universe as we continue to live our lives each in our own self-centered way. Forgive us, Lord, and lead us back into Your loving fold. In Christ we pray. Amen.

Hymns
"How Great Thou Art"
"Holy, Holy, Holy"
"Open My Eyes, That I May See"

CSS Publishing Company, LECTIONARY WORSHIP AIDS, by James Wilson

Overview and Insights · God’s Verbal Response to Job (38:1–42:6)

Job has challenged God’s justice repeatedly, declaring that if he only had his day in court, he could prove his innocence to God. Job calls on God to respond, confident in his case against the way that God has been running the world. God is about to show up, as Job has requested repeatedly, but things are going to go rather differently than Job expects.

God certainly has a sense of humor. In 9:16–17 Job declared poetically, “Even if I summoned him and he responded, ... he would crush me with a storm.” Then in the final flowery speech of Elihu, the young speaker describes the power of God by connecting God to the lightning, wind, clouds, and rain of a storm (37:1–24). So it is rather ironic that when God does appear, he comes blasting down out of a storm, demanding, “Who is this that dark…

The Baker Bible Handbook by , Baker Publishing Group, 2016

Job 38:1--41:34 · The Lord Speaks

1 Then the Lord answered Job out of the storm. He said:

2 "Who is this that darkens my counsel with words without knowledge?

3 Brace yourself like a man; I will question you, and you shall answer me.

4 "Where were you when I laid the earth's foundation? Tell me, if you understand.

5 Who marked off its dimensions? Surely you know! Who stretched a measuring line across it?

6 On what were its footings set, or who laid its cornerstone-

7 while the morning stars sang together and all the angels shouted for joy?

8 "Who shut up the sea behind doors when it burst forth from the womb,

9 when I made the clouds its garment and wrapped it in thick darkness,

10 when I fixed limits for it and set its doors and bars in place,

11 when I said, 'This far you may come and no farther; here is where your proud waves halt'?

12 "Have you ever given orders to the morning, or shown the dawn its place,

13 that it might take the earth by the edges and shake the wicked out of it?

14 The earth takes shape like clay under a seal; its features stand out like those of a garment.

15 The wicked are denied their light, and their upraised arm is broken.

16 "Have you journeyed to the springs of the sea or walked in the recesses of the deep?

17 Have the gates of death been shown to you? Have you seen the gates of the shadow of death ?

18 Have you comprehended the vast expanses of the earth? Tell me, if you know all this.

19 "What is the way to the abode of light? And where does darkness reside?

20 Can you take them to their places? Do you know the paths to their dwellings?

21 Surely you know, for you were already born! You have lived so many years!

22 "Have you entered the storehouses of the snow or seen the storehouses of the hail,

23 which I reserve for times of trouble, for days of war and battle?

24 What is the way to the place where the lightning is dispersed, or the place where the east winds are scattered over the earth?

25 Who cuts a channel for the torrents of rain, and a path for the thunderstorm,

26 to water a land where no man lives, a desert with no one in it,

27 to satisfy a desolate wasteland and make it sprout with grass?

28 Does the rain have a father? Who fathers the drops of dew?

29 From whose womb comes the ice? Who gives birth to the frost from the heavens

30 when the waters become hard as stone, when the surface of the deep is frozen?

31 "Can you bind the beautiful Pleiades? Can you loose the cords of Orion?

32 Can you bring forth the constellations in their seasons or lead out the Bear with its cubs?

33 Do you know the laws of the heavens? Can you set up God's dominion over the earth?

34 "Can you raise your voice to the clouds and cover yourself with a flood of water?

35 Do you send the lightning bolts on their way? Do they report to you, 'Here we are'?

36 Who endowed the heart with wisdom or gave understanding to the mind ?

37 Who has the wisdom to count the clouds? Who can tip over the water jars of the heavens

38 when the dust becomes hard and the clods of earth stick together?

39 "Do you hunt the prey for the lioness and satisfy the hunger of the lions

40 when they crouch in their dens or lie in wait in a thicket?

41 Who provides food for the raven when its young cry out to God and wander about for lack of food?

1 "Do you know when the mountain goats give birth? Do you watch when the doe bears her fawn?

2 Do you count the months till they bear? Do you know the time they give birth?

3 They crouch down and bring forth their young; their labor pains are ended.

4 Their young thrive and grow strong in the wilds; they leave and do not return.

5 "Who let the wild donkey go free? Who untied his ropes?

6 I gave him the wasteland as his home, the salt flats as his habitat.

7 He laughs at the commotion in the town; he does not hear a driver's shout.

8 He ranges the hills for his pasture and searches for any green thing.

9 "Will the wild ox consent to serve you? Will he stay by your manger at night?

10 Can you hold him to the furrow with a harness? Will he till the valleys behind you?

11 Will you rely on him for his great strength? Will you leave your heavy work to him?

12 Can you trust him to bring in your grain and gather it to your threshing floor?

13 "The wings of the ostrich flap joyfully, but they cannot compare with the pinions and feathers of the stork.

14 She lays her eggs on the ground and lets them warm in the sand,

15 unmindful that a foot may crush them, that some wild animal may trample them.

16 She treats her young harshly, as if they were not hers; she cares not that her labor was in vain,

17 for God did not endow her with wisdom or give her a share of good sense.

18 Yet when she spreads her feathers to run, she laughs at horse and rider.

19 "Do you give the horse his strength or clothe his neck with a flowing mane?

20 Do you make him leap like a locust, striking terror with his proud snorting?

21 He paws fiercely, rejoicing in his strength, and charges into the fray.

22 He laughs at fear, afraid of nothing; he does not shy away from the sword.

23 The quiver rattles against his side, along with the flashing spear and lance.

24 In frenzied excitement he eats up the ground; he cannot stand still when the trumpet sounds.

25 At the blast of the trumpet he snorts, 'Aha!' He catches the scent of battle from afar, the shout of commanders and the battle cry.

26 "Does the hawk take flight by your wisdom and spread his wings toward the south?

27 Does the eagle soar at your command and build his nest on high?

28 He dwells on a cliff and stays there at night; a rocky crag is his stronghold.

29 From there he seeks out his food; his eyes detect it from afar.

30 His young ones feast on blood, and where the slain are, there is he."

1 The Lord said to Job:

2 "Will the one who contends with the Almighty correct him? Let him who accuses God answer him!"

3 Then Job answered the Lord :

4 "I am unworthy-how can I reply to you? I put my hand over my mouth.

5 I spoke once, but I have no answer- twice, but I will say no more."

6 Then the Lord spoke to Job out of the storm:

7 "Brace yourself like a man; I will question you, and you shall answer me.

8 "Would you discredit my justice? Would you condemn me to justify yourself?

9 Do you have an arm like God's, and can your voice thunder like his?

10 Then adorn yourself with glory and splendor, and clothe yourself in honor and majesty.

11 Unleash the fury of your wrath, look at every proud man and bring him low,

12 look at every proud man and humble him, crush the wicked where they stand.

13 Bury them all in the dust together; shroud their faces in the grave.

14 Then I myself will admit to you that your own right hand can save you.

15 "Look at the behemoth, which I made along with you and which feeds on grass like an ox.

16 What strength he has in his loins, what power in the muscles of his belly!

17 His tail sways like a cedar; the sinews of his thighs are close-knit.

18 His bones are tubes of bronze, his limbs like rods of iron.

19 He ranks first among the works of God, yet his Maker can approach him with his sword.

20 The hills bring him their produce, and all the wild animals play nearby.

21 Under the lotus plants he lies, hidden among the reeds in the marsh.

22 The lotuses conceal him in their shadow; the poplars by the stream surround him.

23 When the river rages, he is not alarmed; he is secure, though the Jordan should surge against his mouth.

24 Can anyone capture him by the eyes, or trap him and pierce his nose?

1 "Can you pull in the leviathan with a fishhook or tie down his tongue with a rope?

2 Can you put a cord through his nose or pierce his jaw with a hook?

3 Will he keep begging you for mercy? Will he speak to you with gentle words?

4 Will he make an agreement with you for you to take him as your slave for life?

5 Can you make a pet of him like a bird or put him on a leash for your girls?

6 Will traders barter for him? Will they divide him up among the merchants?

7 Can you fill his hide with harpoons or his head with fishing spears?

8 If you lay a hand on him, you will remember the struggle and never do it again!

9 Any hope of subduing him is false; the mere sight of him is overpowering.

10 No one is fierce enough to rouse him. Who then is able to stand against me?

11 Who has a claim against me that I must pay? Everything under heaven belongs to me.

12 "I will not fail to speak of his limbs, his strength and his graceful form.

13 Who can strip off his outer coat? Who would approach him with a bridle?

14 Who dares open the doors of his mouth, ringed about with his fearsome teeth?

15 His back has rows of shields tightly sealed together;

16 each is so close to the next that no air can pass between.

17 They are joined fast to one another; they cling together and cannot be parted.

18 His snorting throws out flashes of light; his eyes are like the rays of dawn.

19 Firebrands stream from his mouth; sparks of fire shoot out.

20 Smoke pours from his nostrils as from a boiling pot over a fire of reeds.

21 His breath sets coals ablaze, and flames dart from his mouth.

22 Strength resides in his neck; dismay goes before him.

23 The folds of his flesh are tightly joined; they are firm and immovable.

24 His chest is hard as rock, hard as a lower millstone.

25 When he rises up, the mighty are terrified; they retreat before his thrashing.

26 The sword that reaches him has no effect, nor does the spear or the dart or the javelin.

27 Iron he treats like straw and bronze like rotten wood.

28 Arrows do not make him flee; slingstones are like chaff to him.

29 A club seems to him but a piece of straw; he laughs at the rattling of the lance.

30 His undersides are jagged potsherds, leaving a trail in the mud like a threshing sledge.

31 He makes the depths churn like a boiling caldron and stirs up the sea like a pot of ointment.

32 Behind him he leaves a glistening wake; one would think the deep had white hair.

33 Nothing on earth is his equal- a creature without fear.

34 He looks down on all that are haughty; he is king over all that are proud."

Commentary · The Lord Speaks

38:1–41:34; 40:3–5; 42:1–6 Review · God’s Speeches with Job’s Responses:The polyphony in the words and ideas that have cut across the respective characters’ mono­logic points of view grinds nearly to a halt with God’s thunderous voice. Job finally gets to stand before God. The wish is granted. But, teasingly, this will be no dialogic interchange. This is monologue. God has a different set of values, other premises than those held by Job. God’s barrage of questions, though in the form of an invitation to dialogue, are here rhetorical and meant to silence, the outgrowth of confronting one whose words are “without knowledge” (38:2).

Commentator upon commentator explores the conundrum of whether God’s speeches engage Job’s arguments, and if so, how. Has God really answered? If he has answered, has he answered in full or suitably? Job is certainly, in a sense, left speechless. Is that because he has heard a satisfying response or because he has been crushed into silence?

38:1–38: God · God appears out of the storm to confront Job. God will be doing the talking now, the accumulative effect of which is overwhelming. The rhetorical “Who?” “Where?” “Have you?” “If you know, tell me,” pound at Job. Does Job truly understand the cosmos: earth’s structure (38:4–7); the forces of the sea (38:8–11); dawn (38:12–15); the depths of the sea and the gates of death (38:16–18); light and darkness (38:19–21); storm (38:22–30); the movement of constellations (38:31–33); the control of weather (38:34–38)?

38:39–39:30: God · Abruptly God turns his attention to wild animals: lion (38:39–41); mountain goat and deer(39:1–4); wild donkey (39:5–12); ostrich (39:13–18); war horse (39:19–25); hawk and eagle (39:26–30). Understanding the ways of such creatures is beyond the human.

40:1–2: God · Godhas held the cosmos and wildness of nature under the light of scrutiny to explore the mystery beyond human understanding. God now demands an answer from Job.

40:3–5: Job · One might expect the disputation to begin here in earnest. Job has wanted this moment to stand and to plead his case before God. Four words are all Job needs to signal his complete and utter withdrawal (40:4). The white flag of surrender is buoyed by the action of clapping his mouth shut with his hand.

40:6–14: God · God’s second speech begins with a challenge. Job is again told to brace himself in the face of what will be a second wave. God, through the rest of his speech, will again direct Job to consider animals. But here they are two great creatures, one of land and one of sea: Behemoth and Leviathan.

40:15–24: God · In form, Behemoth (Hebrew behemot) is nothing more than a plural of the Hebrew word for “animal” (behemah). Yet, from Job’s context, this is a beast and one that is particularly powerful and awesome. The storyteller may well have crafted this word specifically for this story. From the description, Behemoth may be a hippopotamus, connected in Egypt with the deities Seth and Horus. Behemoth may also be a water buffalo or related to the bull figures so prominent in Mesopotamia. Or Behemoth may be a literary fiction, drawing from well-known imagery but representing a sort of everybeast of a type that complements Leviathan. Behemoth, a creation of God, as is Job (40:15), is a primordial beast of calm repose, approachable only by its Maker. God’s query whether one can catch it provides the segue to the next creature.

41:1–34: God · Can Job catch Leviathan? Likely not a crocodile, Leviathan is a creature of epic mythic presence (see commentary on 3:1–10). Leviathan is a wild, chaotic force, and, whereas Behemoth evoked images of repose, Leviathan is fierce, fearless, menacing, and violent. God ends his second speech by describing this beast as one who looks down on all who are arrogant and proud (41:33–34). This is shocking to the common conception that Leviathan, as chaos, is to be thwarted and defeated. Here the creature is celebrated for its well-deserved pride.

The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016

Big Idea: Yahweh poses questions about the physical world to demonstrate that Job’s knowledge is too limited to explain how God works in his world.

Understanding the Text

Throughout the speeches in chapters 3–37, the various human speakers claim to know what Yahweh thinks about Job’s situation, but in chapter 38 Yahweh finally breaks his silence and speaks for himself. Yahweh addresses Job in 38:1–40:2, focusing on his design for the world (38:2), and then Job replies briefly in 40:3–5. Yahweh resumes speaking in 40:6–41:34, stressing his justice in the world (40:8), and then Job utters his final response in 42:1–6. These divine speeches are the rhetorical climax of the book as Yahweh speaks in vivid and brilliant poetry.

As the master teacher, Yahweh poses more than seventy unanswerable questions to Job. These questions are meant not to humiliate or intimidate Job but rather to disclose to him the many inexplicable wonders of God’s workings in the world. Yahweh makes use of a skillful pedagogical technique by asking questions to help Job discover what he does not know (cf. Isa. 40:12–31). As Job comes to realize how much he does not comprehend about God’s world, he is willing to accept a humble position before Yahweh, who does know all things. Yahweh does not answer the questions that Job has been asking, but instead he points Job in an altogether different direction. He wants Job to learn that the divine wisdom is superior to even the best human understanding. Yahweh knows what he is doing in his world and in Job’s life.

Historical and Cultural Background

The words in 38:36 have been rendered in many ways by various translations, but the NIV is probably accurate in speaking of two birds, the ibis and the rooster. Yahweh asks Job, “Who gives the ibis wisdom or gives the rooster understanding?” In Egyptian thought, these birds were noteworthy because of their ability to signal changes coming in the weather. The ibis predicted when the Nile River would rise, and the rooster crowed to indicate the approach of morning or of rain.1The innate instincts of these birds could not be explained by humans; they were given to them by Yahweh, their creator.

Interpretive Insights

38:1  Then the Lord spoke to Job out of the storm. In 31:35, Job challenged God to answer him, but then Elihu began speaking instead. In chapter 38, Yahweh breaks his silence. Bypassing Elihu, who has been speaking for the previous six chapters, Yahweh addresses Job directly. This very act of communication is in itself evidence that Job’s relationship with Yahweh is still intact. Yahweh speaks out of a storm, as he does elsewhere in the Old Testament. At times, a storm pictures divine wrath (Zech. 9:14), but it can also suggest the arrival of Yahweh as he speaks to his people (Exod. 19:16–20:21). Earlier, a storm was the cause of Job’s pain (1:19; 9:17), but now it is the setting for Yahweh’s communication tohim.

38:2  Who is this that obscures my plans with words without knowledge? Yahweh’s opening words, “Who is this?” introduce the central theme of his speeches. Yahweh wants Job to understand who Yahweh is and who Job is. Job has been speaking beyond what he truly knows, because he, as a finite human, is in no position to speak accurately about Yahweh’s plans for the world or for him personally. Yahweh has a design that surpasses anything that Job can fathom or describe.

38:3  I will question you, and you shall answer me. In chapter 31 Job thought that his legal strategy of negative confession would put God on the defensive and compel him to rule at least indirectly on Job’s innocence, but Yahweh will not be manipulated so easily. Yahweh takes the initiative by posing the questions and requiring Job to answer him. By this rigorous interrogation, Yahweh will demonstrate how inadequate Job’s understanding is. Yahweh knows all the answers to the questions that he poses, but Job has no answer to even a single divine query.

38:4–7  Where were you when I laid the earth’s foundation? Yahweh describes the moment of the creation of the earth, when the stars sang together and the angels shouted for joy (38:7). As Proverbs 8:22–31 states, wisdom was present at creation, but no human was there to observe it. Not even the first human was there to see how Yahweh constructed the earth, and certainly Job was not there to witness it. Yahweh presses Job in verse5 by asking him, “Who marked off [the earth’s] dimensions?” This question compels Job to admit what he does not know, but what Yahweh does know perfectly, and it implies that Yahweh is going to lead Job into new frontiers of understanding beyond anything he has comprehended before.

38:8–11  Who shut up the sea behind doors when it burst forth from the womb? Yahweh here uses the image of childbirth to picture the taming of the sea. In ancient Near Eastern thought, the sea was often the personification of chaos, but in the Bible the sea is securely under divine control (Gen. 1:2; Rev. 21:1). Yahweh places firm limits on the sea (38:10–11; cf. Ps. 104:5–9), with the sandy shore as its boundary (Jer. 5:22). Yahweh paints a lovely word picture of using the clouds and darkness as the cloths with which he swaddles the sea(38:9).

38:12–15  Have you ever given orders to the morning, or shown the dawn its place? In the creation narrative, God says, “Let there be light,” and light comes into existence (Gen. 1:3). With his light, God thwarts the malicious people who work their evil under the cover of darkness (Job 24:13–17). Yahweh’s question demands a negative answer from Job, even though Job has vainly attempted to curse the day in 3:3–10. As a human, Job cannot assume Yahweh’s prerogative to give orders to the morning.

38:16–18  Have the gates of death been shown to you? In 3:16–19 and 14:13–15, Job expresses a longing for Sheol. Nevertheless, Yahweh’s questions in 38:16–18 indicate that Job does not truly understand death and the subterranean region, so his desire for the grave is born out of ignorance rather than knowledge

38:22–30  What is the way to the place where the lightning is dispersed? In 38:22–30, Yahweh asks Job about meteorological phenomena that he can observe. Job can see the effects of Yahweh’s work, but he cannot understand how Yahweh accomplishes what he does in the weather. Job has to admit that his knowledge of snow, hail, lightning, wind, rain, and ice is profoundly deficient. Even what Job experiences he cannot comprehend or explain.

In directing Job’s attention to the desert, Yahweh indicates that he sends rain to places where there are no humans to profit from it (38:26–27). Humans may perceive this as unnecessary or even a waste of resources, but Yahweh’s purposes for the earth go far beyond specifically human concerns. His ways are higher than the ways of humans, and his thoughts surpass human insight (cf. Isa. 55:8–9). From Yahweh’s perspective, the earth belongs to him, and though he causes it to function for human beings, it exists for his own divine purpose (Ps. 24:1). Humans are indeed an important part of his plan, but they are not the exclusive focus of his interest and his lavish grace. As the interchange between Yahweh and the adversary in the prologue indicates, there are aspects of Yahweh’s plan and activity that may include human involvement, but they transcend merely human concerns.

38:31–33  Can you bind the chains of the Pleiades? In verses 31–33, Yahweh asks about Job’s ability to control the celestial phenomena, which were often used for omens in the ancient Near East. Is Job able to direct the movements of the constellations and thus determine the course of history? Can he trace the laws that govern the movements of the heavenly bodies? The implied negative answers to these questions affirm that the stars are under Yahweh’s control (cf. Isa. 40:26) and far beyond Job’s grasp.

38:39–41  Do you hunt the prey for the lioness and satisfy the hunger of the lions? Yahweh now turns from asking about the non-living physical world (38:4–38) to direct Job’s attention to the animal world (38:39–39:30), a transition that has actually begun in verse 36 with the reference to the ibis and the rooster (see the discussion under “Historical and Cultural Background”), thus shifting the focus closer to Job himself. There are countless aspects of the zoological domain in which Job has to admit his lack of knowledge and control. Both the predatory lions (38:39–40) and the ravens, which feed on carrion (38:41), receive their food apart from human enablement (cf. Ps. 147:9). Once again, Yahweh implies that his wise ordering of his world is not restricted to what the retribution principle predicts or regards as just and necessary.

Theological Insights

Yahweh’s main point in his speeches is that the world must be understood in terms of what he is doing in it. Job’s inability to answer the divine questions demonstrates that he cannot understand how Yahweh governs the world of nature. Consequently, Job should not expect to comprehend how Yahweh works with humans like him. Finite humans are in no position to call Yahweh to account, any more than a piece of pottery can dictate to the potter (Isa. 45:9; Rom. 9:20–21). Job and the friends have been asking why Job has experienced adversity, but this is the wrong question. The real question is “Who is Yahweh, and can he be trusted in what he is doing in his world?”

Teaching the Text

When Yahweh at last speaks in Job 38, he does not answer the questions that Job has raised previously. Rather, Yahweh takes the role of the teacher, and he asks questions of Job. By the time he finishes, Yahweh, the master teacher, poses more than seventy questions, and Job is unable to answer a single one. When Job concluded his confession of innocence in chapter 31, he thought that the Almighty God would have to render his verdict about Job’s innocence or guilt. Yahweh, however, is not compelled by Job’s legal strategy. Instead of following what Job has set out for him, Yahweh has his own lesson plan by which he instructs Job. As the book of Proverbs demonstrates, like Job we are students in God’s school of wisdom. In his school, we need to be attentive to what God says, we need to accept his teaching eagerly rather than insist on our own way, and we must assimilate his lessons so that they affect every area of our lives.

Yahweh’s purpose in posing so many questions to Job is to demonstrate to Job the limitations of his knowledge. Yahweh’s questions all relate to the physical world that Job has observed for all his life. As Job considers each question, he has to admit in his own mind over and over again that he does not know the answer. By the time he has made that mental admission more than seventy times, Job cannot escape the conclusion that his knowledge is woefully inferior to what Yahweh possesses. With this humbling realization, Job has to accept the fact that he is finite in his knowledge but that Yahweh is infinite in what he knows. If that is true about the physical world, then it must also be true of Job’s experience. Job does not understand what has happened to him, but Yahweh does understand it completely.

As readers, we are aware of the factors in the prologue that Job is unable to discern. Because we now have the full Bible, we have more of God’s revelation than was available when the book of Job was written, long before Christ’s death and resurrection. However, even today there is much that God knows that he has not made known to us humans. So, like Job, we need to place our trust in God, who knows all, rather than expect to understand all of the puzzling paradoxes in our lives.

Yahweh’s questions about the physical world lead Job to trust and worship him more. In the same way, the Lord has placed before us in nature a constant stream of evidence to convince us of his power and wisdom. By gazing at God’s world, we have our attention directed toward him, and we are encouraged to appreciate his greatness in the world and for our lives.

Illustrating the Text

God teaches us that his knowledge is infinite while ours is finite.

Television: Perry Mason. In the old television series Perry Mason, based on the novels by Erle Stanley Gardner, the title character (played by Raymond Burr) was renowned for his keen ability to use questions during his cross-examination to destroy the legal argument presented by the prosecuting attorney. His skillful interrogations illustrate Yahweh’s approach to Job, bringing in a right perspective.

Art: William Blake. The fourteenth engraving in Blake’s (1757–1827) picture book on the book of Job is commonly called When the Morning Stars Sang Together, and it illustrates Job 38:7: “while the morning stars sang together andall the angels shouted for joy.” In this engraving, Blake portrays the angels and God above, while humans are beneath them in a posture of humility. This illustrates the humble position of humans, who were not present at creation to witness God’s handiwork.

Nature: On rare occasions, rain can cause a desert to burst forth in bloom. For example, in 2005 winter rain caused the Atacama Desert in Chile to become a giant meadow of beautiful, bright-colored flowers.

Nature: The constellations and their movements, the turbulence of the seas, and other natural phenomena—all are under God’s control and visually illustrate the marvels about which God speaks to Job.

Literature: The Silmarillion, by J.R.R. Tolkien. This book, which was published posthumously in 1977 by Tolkien’s son Christopher, presents a poetic depiction of the creation of the world. This description is imaginative and also speculative, because no human was there to observe God’s creative work.

When God speaks, he may not directly answer our questions.

Book: On Asking God Why, by Elisabeth Elliot. Elliot (b. 1926) lost her husband, Jim, in Ecuador in 1956. Their only daughter was ten months old. Elliot understands suffering and talks about it often. She writes, “The psalmist often questioned God and so did Job. God did not answer the questions, but he answered the man—with the mystery of himself. He has not left us entirely in the dark. We know a great deal more about his purposes than poor old Job did, yet Job trusted him. He is not only the Almighty—Job’s favorite name for him. He is also our Father, and what a father does is not by any means always understood by the child.”2

Yahweh Asks Job about Animals

Big Idea: Job’s limited understanding and control of animals demonstrate the inability of humans to grasp how Yahweh has ordered his world.

Understanding the Text

In chapter 39, Yahweh continues to pose questions to Job. After considering features of the non-living physical world in 38:4–38, in 38:39 Yahweh began to focus his queries on the animal realm, and this topic continues throughout the entirety of chapter 39. All the animals that Yahweh cites live beyond the control of humans. Most of them are totally wild, and even the warhorse is tamed only partially. Job does not comprehend the various features of the lives of these animals, but the chapter clearly implies that Yahweh knows them thoroughly. There is much going on in Yahweh’s world that escapes the notice of humans, so these aspects of his purpose do not hinge upon human interests. Job, therefore, needs to view what is going on in his life in terms of Yahweh’s much bigger and broader plan. This chapter leads directly into Yahweh’s challenge to Job to answerhim, in 40:1–2.

Historical and Cultural Background

In ancient times, as early as the Paleolithic period, cave art featured pictures of the wild ox. Ugaritic literary texts speak of the god Baal hunting for a wild ox in the upper Galilee region. In Egyptian and Mesopotamian literature and art, kings are depicted as hunting wild animals, including the aurochs (NIV: “wild ox”) referred to in Job 39:9–12. The aurochs was never tamed before it became extinct about four hundred years ago, but it became the ancestor of the domesticated cattle of today.

Interpretive Insights

39:1–4  Do you know when the mountain goats give birth? The mountain goat here is the ibex that today can be seen in the En Gedi area of Israel. It is an elusive animal that can be observed only from a distance, and it resists domestication by humans. With telephoto lenses humans can now learn some of the habits of animals like the ibex, but until recent times little was known of its patterns of life. Job cannot detect even the gestation period for its offspring, in contrast to the knowledge of animal husbandry he must have for his domesticated animals (1:3). Nevertheless, even though it is not bred by humans, the ibex is able to manage very well by the instinct that God has given to it. Job, however, has virtually no knowledge of even the most basic details of theibex.

39:5–8  Who let the wild donkey go free? It is evident from Yahweh’s questions about the wild donkey that he has set this animal free from human control. The wild donkey is skillful in surviving in the wasteland, even thriving in places where humans rarely venture. It avoids the commotion and confinement of town life, happy to keep away from humans, who would distract it and try to domesticate it for their own purposes. This independence comes at a cost, because the wild donkey must forage for food in the barren wilderness.

39:9–12  Will the wild ox consent to serve you? The wild ox, or aurochs, is now extinct, but in the Old Testament it is a familiar image for strength (e.g., Deut. 33:17; Ps. 92:10). Its power and remoteness caused it to be the prize game for royal hunts in ancient Egypt. No doubt, this animal was viewed by many humans as a great potential resource for activities such as plowing and transporting materials. The aurochs, however, would not surrender its freedom for a life of domesticated labor. As much as humans might have wanted to harness its prodigious strength for their own purposes, the aurochs would not be tamed by them. From the human perspective, this is a rich energy source going for naught, but that is how the aurochs functioned within Yahweh’s world. Once again, Job has to realize that life as Yahweh has designed it does not revolve around human concerns, so humans like Job are not in a position to speak definitively about how Yahweh must govern his world.

39:13–18  she cares not that her labor was in vain. Yahweh’s description of the ostrich in 39:13–18 reveals a bird that seems so bent on inefficiency that it makes us laugh.1The mother ostrich lays her eggs in the sand, which can place her young at risk (39:14–15; cf. Lam. 4:3). She is easily distracted, so she appears to neglect her young (39:16), although this could also be construed as a strategy to draw predators away from them. The ostrich has not been given wisdom or good sense by God (39:17), for reasons that only he knows. It does, however, have great speed, which enables it to run away from a horse. In fact, ostriches have been timed running at fifty miles per hour, and they also have great maneuverability. These enigmatic features of the ostrich cause humans to scratch their heads and wonder why Yahweh made it as he did. The apparent inefficiency of the ostrich is a contrast to the tidy system of retribution theology, in which everything in life is explained in simple, logical terms.

39:19–25  Do you give the horse its strength? In 39:19–25, Yahweh paints a magnificent word picture of an awesome warhorse. This is the one animal in this section that is not wild, but even though it has been trained by humans for use in battle, it is still terrifying to behold (see the sidebar). In the heat of conflict, the warhorse is not completely mastered by its rider, because it can become reckless in its eagerness for battle (cf. Jer. 8:6). Its powerful features are not the result of its training by humans, because humans can harness only in part the power that Yahweh has given to this animal. No human can take credit for the effectiveness of the warhorse.

39:26–30  Does the hawk take flight by your wisdom? Job 39:26–30 features the hawk and the eagle, which soar far above the domain of humans. No human, like Job, has taught them to fly, but rather their superb ability comes from Yahweh. These birds of prey live in inaccessible places that humans cannot approach (39:28), and no human can tell them when to fly or where to nest (39:27). The hawk and the eagle demonstrate that there is much in Yahweh’s design for the world that humans do not know or control. Job, then, must realize that there is much that he must leave with Yahweh, in the realm of mystery.

Theological Insights

In the Bible, wisdom teachers often point to aspects of nature from which the learner can discover patterns for understanding life. In Proverbs 6:6–11, observation of the ant reveals that humans need to be diligent rather than slothful. In Matthew 6:26–34, Jesus directs attention to the birds and the flowers in order to teach that God provides for all the needs of those who seek first his kingdom and righteousness. When Yahweh instructs Job, however, he uses nature in a different way. His questions compel Job to look at nature and recognize what he does not know. As a result, Job has to admit the limits of his understanding, so that he will trust Yahweh, who does understand all things, including what he is doing in Job’slife.

Teaching the Text

In chapter 39, as Yahweh questions Job about several animals, it becomes increasingly evident that Job as a human understands little about each of the animals cited by Yahweh, and he is even less able to control them. All of the animals can be observed at a distance by Job, but his comprehension of how they live is very limited. Yahweh’s persistent interrogation and descriptions of the animals compel Job to acknowledge that he is virtually ignorant about considerable portions of God’s world. In addition, Job has no ability to control what the animals do, because they function apart from humans. Even when humans have tamed animals for their own use, the animals retain the potential to assert their own will and do as they please.

Job may well have seen the mountain goat, or ibex, leaping upon the cliffs. The ibex, however, keeps its distance from humans, so Job cannot watch when it bears its young, or even calculate how long the gestation period is. Although Job can observe some of this animal’s actions, he knows little about its habits. How its young are born, how they mature, and when they set out on their own are all mysteries to Job, but these things are totally understood by Yahweh.

Some of God’s creatures make little sense to humans. People look at the ostrich and laugh, because they perceive it to be unthinking, careless, and foolish. That is indeed the case, because God has not endowed the ostrich with wisdom and good sense. In the divine plan, not everything has been designed to work with efficiency, as the ostrich demonstrates well. However, God has also enabled the ostrich to evade predators and humans intent on capturing it, by giving it unusual speed and expert maneuverability. The ostrich is God’s object lesson to us that he works in ways that may escape our understanding, but that he knows what he is doing. Therefore, we need to trust him even when we cannot comprehend all of his ways.

These examples from the animal world teach Job, and they teach us, some key truths that we need to have clarified in our minds. Yahweh’s plan includes more than just human concerns. There are many aspects of life that we humans can understand only in part. The ability of humans to control life is limited, because Yahweh has not placed everything under our mastery. Therefore, we must realize that there are significant limits to what we can know and control in our lives. Rather than assuming that we understand even our own experience perfectly, we must be willing to trust Yahweh, who alone knows and controls all things.

Illustrating the Text

Yahweh’s plan encompasses more than just human concerns.

Bible: Make a reference to some passages in the Bible that mention sparrows and birds of the air, like Psalm 84:1–4; Matthew 6:25–26; or Matthew 10:29–30. Point out that we usually read these passages to assure ourselves that we are of value to God, and the passages clearly carry that as their primary message. However, these passages also show that even the welfare and worship songs of these smallest creatures matter to God and have a place in his plan for creation. His wisdom and providence manage seasons and harvests for them, too, and he hears their groans along with all creation for the redemption he will bring in Christ (Rom. 8:9). The good news is that if God perfectly and brilliantly cares for such small creatures, we are certainly assured that he will do abundantly more for us. The very humbling news, however, is that his response to our needs isn’t merely about us; it also takes due consideration of sparrows, ibex, nations, and distant nebulae, all giving glory to him. God will never reject us by telling us he has bigger fish to fry, but he will also never tell us that the world revolves around us.

Even a cursory glance around the created world ought to let us know we are not in charge or fully “in the know.”

Science: Take time to share an interesting scientific fact or two about the hidden levels of complexity behind even a seemingly simple natural phenomenon that is relevant to your listeners. For example, about two hundred muscles are involved in taking a single step; or consider that twenty amino acids combine to form more than fifty thousand different proteins in the human body. Remind listeners that Jesus said that even the hairs of our heads are numbered (Luke 12:7) and that science estimates this number to be well over one hundred thousand on the average young adult head. If there are so many things we don’t know about what’s happening with our own bodies, how much more is going on in the world around us or in spiritual realms that is beyond our grasp and yet fully known to God? Challenge listeners to spend some time watching shows or reading books to find similar examples of the wonder of nature and the magnificent complexity of the systems we find in the created world.

Personal Stories: Take time to tell about a time when you were forced to stare into mystery and admit how little you truly understood about what God was up to in your life. Talk about what it was like to admit your own ignorance and your feelings of loss and panic that were related to this sort of helplessness. Then share a testimony about how you have discovered that dependence on God, who is omniscient and good, has shaped you, and how accepting mystery and resting in the hands of the Ancient of Days is a constructive experience, especially in times of suffering or loss like Job’s.

Yahweh Directs Job’s Attention to Behemoth

Big Idea: Job is in no position to call Yahweh’s justice into question.

Understanding the Text

After posing to Job numerous questions about his knowledge of the non-living physical and animal domains (Job 38–39), Yahweh asks if Job is qualified to instruct him (40:1–2). Job responds with a tentative and evasive answer (40:3–5). Yahweh then challenges Job to listen again to him (40:6–14). He directs Job’s attention to Behemoth as an especially amazing example of the divine creative work (40:15–24). In chapters 38 and 39, Yahweh focused on a great number of unknowable features in the natural world. Now, beginning in 40:6, Yahweh zooms in to view intensively two creatures, Behemoth (chap. 40) and Leviathan (chap. 41). In Yahweh’s first set of questions, Job learned that he cannot comprehend Yahweh’s order in the world. As he considers Behemoth and Leviathan, Job comes to realize that Yahweh totally controls all threats to his order.

Historical and Cultural Background

The description of Behemoth in 40:15–24 has a number of parallels to artifacts in Egyptian and Ugaritic (Canaanite) art and literature. In Egypt, there are many ancient pictures and literary references to the hippopotamus, and this massive animal was also known to exist in Palestine at that time in history. Many of the features contained in Yahweh’s words to Job would fit the hippopotamus well, especially its life in the water (40:21–23). In the Ugaritic literature, Leviathan (which Yahweh will discuss in chap. 41) is a mythological beast, so some scholars have regarded both Behemoth in chapter 40 and Leviathan as mythological symbols of chaos rather than as literal animals like those in chapters 38 and 39. In either case, Yahweh states clearly that he is in control even of these beasts, which no human can master.

Interpretive Insights

40:2  Will the one who contends with the Almighty correct him? This question echoes Yahweh’s previous words to Job in 38:2. Yahweh refuses to be put on the defensive by replying to Job’s charges and complaints. Rather, he places the burden of proof squarely on Job, as he asks if Job is qualified to instruct him. If Job cannot answer Yahweh’s questions, then he has no standing to reprove Yahweh. Job then must either answer the questions that Yahweh poses to him, and by that means show that he has sufficient understanding to call Yahweh to account, or else he must admit that he cannot answer the divine questions. If that is the case, then Job will be obligated to concede to the superior wisdom of Yahweh, instead of finding fault withhim.

40:4–5  I am unworthy—how can I reply to you? I put my hand over my mouth. Interpreters have taken Job’s reply to Yahweh in 40:4–5 in two contrasting ways.1Some view this as Job’s humble acknowledgment that he has been wrong. This rendering would imply that Yahweh agrees with the friends that Job has sinned. However, in 42:7–9 it is evident that Yahweh affirms Job as right against the friends, who are wrong. Other interpreters rightly contend that Job says that he is “small” rather than that he has sinned, as the friends have insisted. This view sees Job as beginning to turn away from arguing against Yahweh and starting to accept what Yahweh has done in his life. Because Job’s answer is only tentative, Yahweh follows up with a second round of questions and observations in 40:6–41:34, which prompts Job’s final response in42:1–6.

Job describes himself as unworthy or insignificant, rather than as right or wrong. He does not reiterate his earlier claim of innocence, but neither does he retract what he has said before. He says that he will not add to what he said previously, but he does not take it back either. Job is starting to feel the cumulative effect of Yahweh’s questions, which he cannot answer, and this is moving him toward humility. Job is beginning to realize that there are many aspects of Yahweh’s world that he does not understand, and it is likely dawning on him that his own experience lies in this area of mystery as well. Job’s response at this point does not yet resolve the issue, but it is a step in that direction.

40:7  Brace yourself like a man; I will question you, and you shall answer me. As in 38:3, Yahweh again challenges Job to man up, to prepare for strenuous activity. This renewed interrogation will require every effort that Job can muster, as Yahweh has enrolled him in a graduate course in the divine school of wisdom. Using the familiar biblical image of girding up one’s garment by inserting it in the belt (cf. Exod. 12:11; 1Kings 18:46; Jer. 1:17; 1Pet. 1:13 KJV), Yahweh exhorts Job to prepare himself for a formidable intellectual and theological challenge.

40:8  Would you discredit my justice? Would you condemn me to justify yourself? Job earlier said (27:2; cf. 9:24) that God has denied him justice, apparently arguing from the assumption of retribution theology that his innocence does not deserve the adversity he has received. Yahweh now calls into question the legitimacy of Job’s contention. If Job is innocent, is it necessarily the case that Yahweh has been unjust? Is there another alternative? Yahweh poses the central issue: does he have to be unjust in order for Job to be justified? Implicitly, Yahweh is saying that Job may be puzzled by what Yahweh is doing, but that Job is in no position to reprovehim.

40:9–13  Do you have an arm like God’s, and can your voice thunder like his? In Exodus 15:16 and Psalm 44:3, the arm of God is an image for his power. Yahweh’s question here implies that Job can no more exercise moral judgment than he can control the natural world. Chapters 38 and 39 have already shown that Job is inadequate in his knowledge of the natural world, and he is unable to control it. In 40:10–13, Yahweh challenges Job with impossible commands that no human can fulfill. The logical conclusion is that Job is totally unqualified to fault Yahweh. Job is not Yahweh, and he cannot do what the Sovereign Lord does.

40:14  Then I myself will admit to you that your own right hand can save you. Assuming that Job cannot accomplish what the divine commands in verses 10–13 require, Yahweh concludes that he will not defer to Job. Job cannot govern the world by justice, because he is not Yahweh’s equal. Job cannot exercise authority in the physical world, so he should not take it upon himself to dictate to Yahweh how to run the moral realm of life. Job has no ground for faulting Yahweh for choosing not to act as the retribution formula demands. Yahweh maintains that he alone is in control, and he has no intention of ceding his authority to Job or to any other human.

40:15–24  Look at Behemoth, which I made along with you. Scholars have debated extensively the identity of this animal. The term “Behemoth” is the plural form for the generic Hebrew word for an animal. The plural number likely has an intensive force, making it mean “the great beast.” The language in 40:15–24 describing Behemoth parallels in many respects how literal animals are portrayed in Job 38–39. Behemoth has powerful physical features (40:16–18), it exercises dominion over other animals (40:19–22), and it is fearless before raging rivers (40:23) and humans (40:24). It has often been taken to picture the hippopotamus, but other suggestions include the water buffalo, the elephant, or a mythological sea monster. Even though Behemoth cannot be controlled by humans, Yahweh made it and securely controls it, so that it is no threat to the divine order in the world (40:19). Only Yahweh has sufficient power to master this formidable part of his creation. Behemoth, like Job, is a creature that functions within Yahweh’s world and under Yahweh’s authority.

Theological Insights

The Bible frequently uses the literary device of personification to communicate, in terms understandable to humans, aspects of God’s being and activity. For example, Yahweh asks Job in 40:9 if he has an arm like God’s and if his voice can thunder like God’s. The arm or hand of God speaks of his power (Exod. 6:6), and his voice represents his communication. In a similar way, the eye of the Lord is an image for his knowledge (Ps. 33:18). His ear indicates his openness to listen (Ps. 17:6). The shoulder of the Lord is a picture of his acceptance of responsibility (Isa. 9:6). These personifications all make use of familiar aspects of the human body in order to communicate how Yahweh, who is not confined by a physical body,acts.

Teaching the Text

As the book rapidly proceeds toward its conclusion, it becomes increasingly evident that Job is in no position to call Yahweh into question. Earlier, in the dialogue section, Job made several statements about God as he viewed him through the lenses of retribution theology and his own experience of adversity. As Job maintained his innocence, he came to complain that God had not rewarded him with the blessing that he deserved. Yahweh is not yet ready to pronounce his verdict about Job’s claim of innocence, but he does counter Job’s implication that if he is innocent, then God must be unjust to him. By his persistent questioning, Yahweh demonstrates that Job knows much less than he thinks he knows and that Job can control very little in the world. When we are tempted to complain against God or to question his ways in our lives, we must remember that we too are limited in our knowledge. Because we cannot comprehend all that God is doing, we must trust him to act according to his righteous and wise character.

Yahweh defines the central issue for Job and for the reader. Job, working within the framework of retribution theology, has linked the justice of Yahweh to his own righteousness. To Job’s thinking, if he has been righteous, and he is confident that he has been, then Yahweh has not been just to him. By asking Job, “Would you discredit my justice? Would you condemn me to justify yourself?” Yahweh opens up the possibility that there may be another alternative that Job has not considered to explain this situation. This would require that the retribution principle be amended. Perhaps Job’s adversity is due to some other reason that transcends the retribution formula. Just as we will give someone we trust the benefit of the doubt, so we need to be careful not to jump to judgment against the Lord. There may well be more going on in God’s wise plan than what we can understand and appreciate at the time.

Yahweh makes it painfully evident that Job is unable to control the world, because that is Yahweh’s prerogative alone. Because Job cannot do what Yahweh does, Yahweh does not have to yield to Job’s demands. It is Job who will need to bend to Yahweh, and not the other way around. We are always creatures who live within the Creator’s world, so we must humbly accept our place in God’s sovereign design for his world.

Yahweh compels Job to look at Behemoth, an unspecified but awesome animal. This powerful beast cannot be overcome by other animals or by humans, and even the raging rivers do not thwart it. This animal is again a vivid reminder to Job of just how limited he is in Yahweh’s world. He is the greatest of all the men in the East, but compared with the Lord, Job has paltry knowledge and feeble power. As we glimpse the grandeur of God’s world, we too must acknowledge that we are dependent uponhim.

Illustrating the Text

Even the greatest people are feeble when compared to the living God.

Film: Reference a popular superhero movie that will be familiar to your listeners. You might want to try a classic hero such as Superman, Spiderman, or Captain America. Take time to list some of the attributes that the hero has that are noble, and how those are amplified by the hero’s superhuman powers and responsibilities. Then note that most heroes and gods from all the ages of this world are really just bigger versions of humanity. They may have abilities, stature, powers, and longevity beyond what is natural for humans, but they are, nonetheless, governed by basically the same motives, needs, flaws, and instincts that plague humanity. Contrast this with the God of the Bible, who is obviously not an invention of human imagination. Reflect on the ways in which the Lord’s wisdom, power, and justice quantitatively and qualitatively differ from ours. Contrast the miracles of God with the exploits of the hero in question and show how the God of the Bible is not even on the same playing field with the heroes and gods of this age.

Hymn Text: Read aloud the text of the hymn “Immortal, Invisible” to the congregation, pausing to exposit the meaning of certain lines or to let their meaning sink in. Ask if the God described by the hymn writer is anything like the God they have come to worship and experience. If not, ask why humans are tempted to water down the majesty of God and what we miss out on when we lose sight of his unspeakable might and greatness.

Even moral innocence does not give a human the right to judge God’s justice.

Bible: Consider Jesus’s response to the Father’s will in the garden of Gesthemane and in the passion. Unlike all other humans, Jesus truly was without sin and was fully above any moral reproach. However, he did not use this innocence as the basis of any complaint against his Father’s will in sending him to the cross. Instead, he submitted his will to the Father’s three times and obediently offered his body for undeserved punishment without complaint or grumbling. If ever there was an innocent person whose integrity endowed him with the right to complain about undeserved suffering, it was Jesus. Yet even he refused to malign his Father’s justice or question his Father’s right to insist that he carry a cross he had not earned.

Bible: Reflect on the text of the Lord’s Prayer, paying special attention to the words “Thy Kingdom come, Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.” Remind listeners that Christians submit to the kingship of God and agree to live under the rule of his justice, however unsearchable it may seem at times. Invite them to join you in praying the prayer, perhaps with pauses for reflection. Ask them to consider if they have been grumbling against God’s will or judging his justice by their own standards, and invite them to include that in the “forgive us our debts” section of the prayer.

Yahweh Points Job to Leviathan

Big Idea: Leviathan cannot be controlled by Job but is under Yahweh’s control.

Understanding the Text

Yahweh’s long-awaited speech to Job in chapters 38–41 climaxes with Yahweh’s stirring description of the sea creature Leviathan (Job 41). After the barrage of unanswerable questions by Yahweh, this final object lesson at last wilts the remaining vestiges of Job’s resistance, so that he responds humbly to Yahweh in 42:1–6. All that remains after Job’s answer is the epilogue (42:7–17), in which Yahweh will affirm Job’s innocence and restore a full measure of blessing toJob.

Historical and Cultural Background

In the Ugaritic (Canaanite) mythological literature, Lotan was a twisting sea creature with seven heads that was defeated by Baal. The description of Leviathan in Job 41, as well as references to it in Psalm 74:14 and Isaiah 27:1, likely borrows this familiar ancient image to refer to any factor that threatens to bring disorder to Yahweh’s world. The Bible, however, is very clear that Yahweh has triumphed over Leviathan and even has made it to play in the sea (Ps. 104:26). In Revelation 12:3–9, the defeat of Satan is portrayed with the same kind of imagery, as a great dragon with seven heads is cast down from heaven by the angel Michael. Consequently, in the history of Christian biblical interpretation, the antichrist as he wreaks havoc on the earth is often depicted as riding upon Leviathan.1

Interpretive Insights

41:1  Can you pull in Leviathan with a fishhook or tie down its tongue with a rope? Once again, Yahweh asks a rhetorical question that expects a negative answer from Job. Leviathan is not a trout or bass that can be caught with a hook and line. This fierce sea creature featured in ancient Near Eastern mythological literature is far too strong for any human to defeat. Leviathan is clearly beyond the range of Job’s control.

41:3–5  Will it keep begging you for mercy? In verses 3–5, Yahweh uses humor to reinforce in Job’s mind how ridiculous and futile it would be for any human to suppose that he could tame Leviathan. This powerful creature would scarcely entreat Job to be gentle with it (41:3). There is no chance that it would submit itself willingly to becoming a bond slave (41:4; cf. Exod. 21:6). Would Job be so silly as to think that he could train it as a pet for a little girl to lead around on a leash(41:5)? No, Leviathan is much too powerful for a human like Job to control.

41:10  No one is fierce enough to rouse it. Who then is able to stand against me? Yahweh here argues from the lesser to the greater. No human can tame Leviathan (cf. 3:8), so how could anyone ever expect to compel Yahweh to act in a particular way? In chapter 31, Job laid out his legal defense, and then he challenged Yahweh to answer him. Yahweh now states that no one is able to present a case against him in court (cf. 33:5), not even Job. Yahweh’s authority is so supreme that he is not obligated to submit to any subpoena that humans can render against him. Job, therefore, will not be able to succeed in forcing Yahweh into indicating his innocence through his strategy of negative confession. Job’s best-laid plans will come to naught before the Sovereign God.

41:11  Everything under heaven belongs to me. As formidable as Leviathan is, it comes under Yahweh’s rule, because everything under heaven belongs to him (cf. Pss. 24:1; 50:10). Job is unable to tame Leviathan (41:1–9), but Yahweh controls it completely. Clearly, then, Job is not the equal of Yahweh, so he will have to submit before the Lord of the whole world, just as Leviathan must.

41:12  I will not fail to speak of Leviathan’s limbs. With these words, Yahweh begins an extensive, detailed description of the amazing features of Leviathan. In some respects, Leviathan appears like the crocodile, but other details suggest a more fantastic animal, like the fire-breathing dragons of myths. This vivid portrayal in verses 12–32 produces shock and awe in Job, and even readers today cannot fail to be impressed by the grandeur and power of this amazing creature. No other animal can matchit.

41:15–17  they cling together and cannot be parted. In verses 15–17, the scales of Leviathan are described as impenetrable, like a row of shields that are sealed together. No one is able to plunge a sword between the scales in an effort to kill it. Later, in verses 23–29, Leviathan is depicted as having no vulnerability that can be exploited as humans try to defeat it. Clearly, it will take supernatural power and skill to take down this creature. Only Yahweh is up to this challenge.

41:18–21  Its breath sets coals ablaze. The description of Leviathan in verses 18–21 as breathing fire is not suitable for any literal animal. For this reason, it seems better to view Leviathan as a literary allusion to a fantastic creature like a dragon. This creature would be completely beyond Job’s range of experience or control.

41:26–29  it laughs at the rattling of the lance. Just as the wild donkey laughs scornfully at the town (39:7) and the ostrich laughs at the horse and rider that seek to catch it (39:18), so Leviathan laughs at the warrior who tries to attack it. All human efforts to tame or defeat this animal are ineffectual and ludicrous. However, even though Leviathan is impervious to human efforts to control it, it is firmly under Yahweh’s sovereign control (41:11).

41:33  Nothing on earth is its equal—a creature without fear. Leviathan is fearless, because it has no predator and no equal on earth. It is evident, then, that Job must be inferior to this powerful animal. Nevertheless, Leviathan is a creature that is under the authority of Yahweh, its creator. If Yahweh is Lord over Leviathan, then he certainly is Lord over Job’s life as well. Just as Job must acknowledge his inferiority before Leviathan, so he must accept his subordinate status before Yahweh. Yahweh’s ordered world includes even unruly creatures, like Leviathan, that Job cannot control. Yahweh, however, is fully in control, so Job must accept humbly his subordinate place beforeGod.

41:34  It looks down on all that are haughty; it is king over all that are proud. Leviathan has no match in the created world. It is more powerful even than humans, who take pride in their own accomplishments, and it will not submit to their control. However, mighty Leviathan must bow before Yahweh, to whom everything belongs(41:11).

Theological Insights

In the ancient world, pagan gods were typically viewed as ruling over specific local areas. For example, in 1Kings 20:23 when the Syrian army is defeated by Israel, they assume that the god of Israel must control the mountains, so they plan to attack Israel the next time in the plain, where they supposed that the god of Israel would not have jurisdiction. Yahweh, however, is not like the false deities of the nations, because everything under heaven belongs to him (Job 41:11). The universal rule of Yahweh is maintained consistently throughout the Bible, both in the Old Testament (Exod. 19:5; Pss. 24:1; 47:2; Isa. 40:22–26; Dan. 2:20–21) and in the New Testament (Matt. 28:18–20; Rev. 19:15–16). The God of the Bible is Lord of all, and he will not share his glory, authority, or worship with anyone else. That is why every knee will bow and every tongue confess that Jesus is Lord (Phil.2:9–11).

Teaching the Text

The final chapter of Yahweh’s speeches focuses exclusively on the great sea animal, Leviathan. As Yahweh directs Job’s attention to Leviathan, describes the animal in detail, and asks Job questions about it, it is clear that though Leviathan cannot be controlled by Job, it is firmly under Yahweh’s control. Job wanted God to answer his legal complaint, and he expressed his desire for an umpire to adjudicate between him and God. This chapter, however, reveals that Job does not have the status to make these demands of Almighty God. As a human, Job is inferior to Leviathan, and Leviathan is inferior to Yahweh, so Job must take a submissive stance before the Creator. Like Job, we must let God be God, and we must live in faithful submission to him rather than demand that God do what we think is right.

As Yahweh describes the protective scales that cover the powerful body of Leviathan, it is evident that this animal is impervious to human attack. Human weapons can find no vulnerability to exploit, so they bounce harmlessly off Leviathan. This fierce animal seems to have its own way, even making the sea churn like a boiling cauldron. It is totally beyond the control of any person. Similarly, there are factors in our experience that we cannot control and adversities that we cannot avoid. However, all these things that can alarm us are under the Lord’s control, who in all things works for the good of those who love him (Rom.8:28).

As powerful and unrivaled as Leviathan is on earth, it is a creature that is subordinate to Yahweh, the Creator to whom everything under heaven belongs. Leviathan lives under Yahweh’s authority, even though what it does is well beyond the control of humans. Since Job cannot control Leviathan, but Leviathan is controlled by Yahweh, Job must accept the undeniable conclusion that he too lives under Yahweh’s authority. His proper response must be to acknowledge Yahweh as Lord of all and to submit to Yahweh’s authority over his life. Like Job, we too must recognize that we are limited and finite creatures who must humbly yield to the Lord’s sovereign control over our lives. That is what it means to hope in God (cf. Rom.5:3–5).

Illustrating the Text

God points to Leviathan to show how everything is under God’s control.

Nature: It is not possible to determine conclusively what specific animal Leviathan represents. Because the crocodile and the whale share some characteristics with the Leviathan, seeing these animals in action gives a sense of the great power of the creature portrayed in Job 41.

Literature: Moby Dick, by Herman Melville. In this epic nineteenth-century novel, the great whale of the title is often referred to as Leviathan, an allusion to the powerful animal in Job 41. The following description shows some of that power:

As if to strike a quick terror into them, by this time being the first assailant himself, Moby Dick had turned, and was now coming for the three crews.... But ere that close limit was gained, and while yet all three boats were plain as the ship’s three masts to his eye; the White Whale churning himself into furious speed, almost in an instant as it were, rushing among the boats with open jaws, and a lashing tail, offered appalling battle on every side; and heedless of the irons darted at him from every boat, seemed only intent on annihilating each separate plank of which those boats were made.2

Later, “both jaws, like enormous shears bit the craft completely in twain.”

Literature: As mentioned in this unit, dragons feature prominently in many pieces of fantasy literature. For example, in The Hobbit (1937), by J.R.R. Tolkien (1892–1973), the dragon Smaug has many attributes and behaviors (great age; winged, fiery, and reptilian form; a stolen barrow within which he lies on his hoard; disturbance by a theft; and violent airborne revenge on the lands all about) that are derived directly from the unnamed old “night-scather,” the monster Grendel in Beowulf, the old English epic. The Voyage of the Dawn Treader (1952), by C.S. Lewis (1898–1963), also features a vivid picture of a dragon. In many ways, these legendary dragons echo Yahweh’s description of Leviathan.

Teaching the Text by Daniel J. Estes, Baker Publishing Group, 2016

Dictionary

Direct Matches

Banquet

A banquet is a joyful celebration, usually involving wine, abundant food, music, and dancing. Banquets celebrated special occasions such as the forging of a relationship (Gen. 26:26 30), the coronation of a king (1Chron. 12:28–40), the completion of the temple (2Chron. 7:8), victory over one’s enemies (Gen. 14:18–19; Ps. 23:5), weddings (Gen. 29:22; John 2:1–11; Rev. 19:9), birthdays of royals (Mark 6:21), and the reunion of estranged relatives (Luke 15:23–24). Banquets also symbolized one’s status, since they were by invitation only. One’s seating arrangement corresponded to one’s social status in the group, since there were “higher” and “lower” positions (Luke 14:8–9). During the meal, people reclined on bedlike seats.

Jesus uses the banquet as a metaphor for the presence of the kingdom (cf. Matt. 9:14–17). He tells a parable of a king who has planned a wedding banquet for his son. Those who were invited have refused to attend (i.e., the Jewish leaders), so the king commands his servants to go out into the streets and gather as many people as they can find, both good and bad (Matt. 22:1–10).

Jesus also uses the imagery of a banquet to describe the final future manifestation of the kingdom. He exhorts his disciples to be prepared for the unexpected return of the bridegroom, lest they be excluded from the wedding banquet (Matt. 25:1–13). At the Last Supper, he commands the disciples to continue the practice of sharing bread and wine after his departure, to remember his atoning death and to anticipate his future coming (Matt. 26:26–29). This future banquet will celebrate Christ’s final union with his bride, the church (Rev. 19:6–9).

Barren

A barren woman is one who is infertile and without children. The biblical world placed great value on the blessing of having children. Being without children brought despair. This can be seen in Rachel’s despondent plea (Gen. 30:1) and in the fact that wives would offer a servant in their place to bear a child (16:3; 30:3, 9).

In most of the stories about women and infertility, God reversed their circumstances: Sarah (Gen. 11:30), Rebekah (25:21), Rachel (30:22), Samson’s mother (Judg. 13:2 3), Hannah (1Sam. 1:2), the Shunammite (2Kings 4:16), Elizabeth (Luke 1:7). For Michal, barrenness appears as a punishment (2Sam. 6:23).

Caring for the barren is part of God’s praiseworthy caring for the needy (Ps. 113:5–9).

Behemoth

Found only in Job 40:15, “Behemoth” is a transliteration of the Hebrew plural word behemot (lit., “beasts”), meaning “the Beast” par excellence. The failure to identify the creature with any known animal species is deliberate. Some scholars suggest that it is possibly the hippopotamus or the elephant, but such mundane alternatives domesticate what is meant to be a mysterious, larger-than-life creature of fearsome strength, “which I [God] made along with you [Job].” Job complained that God had treated him like a monster who needed to be guarded (7:12). The poem implies that God can tame both Behemoth and Job.

Birth

Births in the ancient world were the domain of women. The women who bore children were often assisted in the birthing process by midwives (Gen. 35:17; 38:28; Exod. 1:1520).

Many women utilized a birthing stool (Exod. 1:16). Upon birth, the newborn often was washed with water, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in cloths (Ezek. 16:4; Luke 2:7, 12). The OT required women to undergo a rite of purification following childbirth (Exod. 13:2, 20; 34:20; Lev. 12:6–8; Luke 2:22–24). This purification lasted forty days after the birth of a son and eighty days after the birth of a daughter and concluded with the sacrifice of both a burnt offering and a sin offering.

Birthing was valued, and women who were considered to be infertile often faced great shame (1Sam. 1:10–11; Luke 1:25). Pain in childbirth was associated with the sin of Eve (Gen. 3:16), and conversely, absence of pain was interpreted as a sign that a woman was particularly righteous. According to Josephus, Moses was born with no pain to his mother, and the Protevangelium of James indicates the same about Mary’s labor with Jesus.

The Bible sometimes employs the language of birth as a spiritual metaphor. In John 3:3–6 Jesus instructs Nicodemus about the need for spiritual birth by explaining that he must be born again. In Rom. 8:22 Paul describes the whole of creation as experiencing the pain of childbirth as it awaits redemption, and in Gal. 4:19 he says that he is in labor for a second time with the Galatians as he desires the formation of Christ in them.

Blood

The word for “blood” in the Bible is used both literally and metaphorically. “Blood” is a significant biblical term for understanding purity boundaries and theological concepts. Blood is a dominant ritual symbol in biblical literature. Blood was used in sacrifices and purification rites, and it was inherently connected to menstruation, animal slaughter, and legal culpability. Among the physical properties of blood are the ability to coagulate, the liquid state of the substance (Rev. 16:34), and the ability to stain (Rev. 19:13). Blood can symbolize moral order in terms of cult, law, and power.

The usage of blood in the OT is predominantly negative. The first direct mention of blood in the biblical text involves a homicide (Gen. 4:10). Henceforward, the shedding of human blood is a main concern (Gen. 9:6). Other concerns pertaining to blood include dietary prohibitions of blood (Lev. 17:10–12), purity issues such as the flow of blood as in menstrual blood (Lev. 15:19–24), and blood as a part of religious rites such as circumcision (Gen. 17:10–11; Exod. 4:24–26).

Leviticus 17:11 contains a central statement in the OT concerning the significant role of blood in the sacrificial system: “The life of a creature is in the blood.” Blood was collected from all animal sacrifices, and blood was poured onto the altar (Lev. 1:5).

The covenant with Abraham was sealed with a covenantal ritual (Gen. 15:10–21). Moses sealed the covenant between the Israelites and God with a blood ritual during which young Israelite men offered young bulls among other sacrifices as fellowship offerings (Exod. 24:5). Moses read the words of the Book of the Covenant and sprinkled the blood of the bulls on the people, saying, “This is the blood of the covenant that the Lord has made with you in accordance with all these words” (Exod. 24:7–8).

During the Passover observance at the time of the exodus, blood was placed on the sides and tops of the doorframes of the Hebrews (Exod. 12:7). Not only altars were sprinkled and thus consecrated with blood, but priests were as well. Aaron and his sons were consecrated by the application of blood to their right earlobe, thumb, and big toe, and the sprinkling of blood and oil on their garments (Exod. 29:20). On the Day of Atonement, the high priest entered the holy of holies and sprinkled blood on the mercy seat to seek atonement for the sins of the people (Lev. 16:15).

Many events in the passion of Christ include references to blood. During the Last Supper, Jesus redefined the last Passover cup: “This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins” (Matt. 26:28). Judas betrayed “innocent blood” (Matt. 27:4), and the money he received for his betrayal was referred to as “blood money” (Matt. 27:6). At Jesus’ trial, Pilate washed his hands and declared, “I am innocent of this man’s blood” (Matt. 27:24).

The apostle Paul wrote that believers are justified by the blood of Christ (Rom. 5:9). This justification or righteous standing with God was effected through Christ’s blood sacrifice (Rom. 3:25–26; 5:8). The writer of Hebrews stressed the instrumental role of blood in bringing about forgiveness (Heb. 9:22). In the picture of the ideal community of Christ, the martyrs in the book of Revelation are situated closest to the throne of God because “they triumphed over him [Satan] by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony; they did not love their lives so much as to shrink from death” (Rev. 12:11). The blood of the Lamb, Christ, is the effective agent here and throughout the NT, bringing about the indirect contact between sinner and God.

Bones

Of the 206 bones that compose the adult skeletal structure, the Bible mentions only a few: rib (Gen. 1:2122), hip (Gen. 32:25), skull (Judg. 9:53), jaw (Isa. 30:28), and legs (John 19:31–33). Nevertheless, while bones could be isolated, anatomical description tended more toward a holistic sense so that bones could refer to physical and psychological collapse in laments (Jer. 23:9) or to the entire person as a corpse (Gen. 50:25; 1Sam. 31:13).

Overwhelmingly, however, anatomical “units” are used metaphorically for human emotions or attitudes: shame becomes “decay in [the] bones” (Prov. 12:4), fear makes “bones shake” (Job 4:14), and a sad spirit “dries up the bones” (Prov. 17:22). The phrase “bone of my bones” is an idiom, a kinship formula used to describe unity and close relatives (Gen. 2:23; cf. 2Sam. 5:1).

Breath

In the OT, the Hebrew words ruakh (“breath, spirit”) and neshamah (“blast, spirit”) are the standard terms, even collectively translated “wind.” Constructively, these terms reflect the vibrant relationship between God and humankind. However, God’s “breath” can also be an agent of judgment. So “breath/wind” is the invasive power of God—proof of his supremacy—capable of disruption or transformation of human life.

It is in human creation that God’s breath is given one of its most dynamic illustrations. Formed of “dust,” the human being must be enlivened by the Creator’s breath. In the OT, human flesh remains dormant and helplessly passive until God breathes; then a living human being is animated (Gen. 2:7; 6:17; cf. Pss. 33:6; 104:29).

“Breath/wind” is also a powerful force in God’s anger, when a “blast of breath from his nostrils” can undo and destroy (2Sam. 22:16). Similarly, a “strong east wind” rolls back the Red Sea for the Israelites’ crossing (Exod. 14:21), but the very same force is the undoing of Pharaoh’s army, which was destroyed as God, Israel’s warrior, “blew” with his “breath” (Exod. 15:10).

Not surprisingly, themes combining breath, wind, and spirit are also used to describe new creation (Ezek. 37:9). The life-generating force of the ruakh/spirit emerges in the NT as the Holy Spirit, manifested in wind, a breath, or Spirit (Gk. pneuma). At Pentecost “a violent wind came from heaven,” enacting another creation (Acts 2:2). John clearly symbolizes Jesus’ “breathing” on the disciples (John 20:22). Not only does this illustrate John’s theology of being born “from above” (3:3 NRSV), but also “he breathed” reenacts the enlivening of Gen. 2:7. The two creations are connected: God’s enlivening in Gen. 2:7 and Jesus’ creation of eternal life following his own resurrection.

Bronze

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals. Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here is on valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as precious and useful metals.

Copper. References to copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss the basic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smelting process (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NT passages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency (Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hard to use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloy bronze.

Bronze. The first biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which we are told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next, bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert. Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and bases for the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:1011, 17–19). The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze (27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin for washing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed it on top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundance of venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles of bronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons of bronze (1Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amount of bronze in his building of the temple (2Kings 25:16), and there was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32, 35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss something that was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 40:3).

Iron and steel. One of the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by the Canaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have been an early use of the metal in the Iron AgeI period (1200–1000 BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’s rod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1Sam. 17:7). Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2Kings 6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days, David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in building the temple (1Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used these materials with the help of Huram-Abi (2Chron. 2:13–14). Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context of trading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor for discussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes the strength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev. 2:27; 19:15).

Tin. Tin was initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin was not used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and even then seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world are currently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoenician traders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it is currently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and used during biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan. Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of a wrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons of copper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possibly originated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound for the Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times in Scripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead. Lead was used early in human history, but its applications were few. It would have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extracted as a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, most notably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture, either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times it is referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writing implement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a woman sitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Gold and silver. Sought after for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked by humans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metals within the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economic and ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form of payment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Gold objects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly because most gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried off as tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological record more frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was found at Eshtemoa (see 1Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has been dated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdom of Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likely used as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been minted into coins.

Gold in the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. The Bible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well as Ophir (1Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places is unknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals, and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of the Classical period were also known for their vast silver-mining operations.

Silver and gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to their uses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, the Israelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold and silver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernacle was highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple built by Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy that silver was considered as plentiful as stone (1Kings 10:27). Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture are those paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

Precious stones. Stones of various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makes few references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were used mainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highly prized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohs were fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it on the Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have been found with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaanite slaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of forts along the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably to protect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones were also found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able to bring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus 28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn by the Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel uses nine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

The Bible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote a hoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1Kings 10:10).

Chaff

The tough outer covering of grain removed by threshing. It is inconsequential and of little substance. Biblical passages refer to the wicked as chaff blowing about in the wind (Job 21:18; Pss. 1:4; 35:5; Dan. 2:35; Hos. 13:3) or being burned in a fire (Isa. 5:24; Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17).

Clay

Basic manufacturing material of fine-grained soil mixed with impurities. It is pliable when moist and hardens when baked. It was used for pottery (Lev. 6:28; 11:33; 15:12; Num. 5:17; Jer. 19:1; 32:14; 2Cor. 4:7), building material (Lev. 14:42; Nah. 3:19), molds (1Kings 7:46), sculpture (Dan. 2:33), and writing tablets (Ezek. 4:1). Clay is used metaphorically to illustrate weakness (Job 4:19; 13:12; 27:16) or lowliness of purpose (Lam. 4:2; 2Cor. 4:7; 2Tim. 2:20). The potter and his clay are likened to God and human creation (Job 10:9; 33:6; Isa. 29:16; 45:9; 64:8; Jer. 18:4; Rom. 9:21).

Clouds

The OT depicts God as riding on a cloud (Judg. 5:4; Isa. 19:1; Pss. 18:1112; 68:4; 104:3), and as the creator and sender of clouds: “Ask rain from the Lord in the season of the spring rain; from the Lord who makes the storm clouds, and he will give them showers of rain, to everyone the vegetation in the field” (Zech. 10:1 ESV [see also 1Kings 18:44; Pss. 135:7; 147:8; Prov. 8:28; Isa. 5:6; Jer. 10:13]). Divine judgment is pictured as a dark storm (Isa. 30:30; Lam. 2:1; Nah. 1:3; Zech. 1:15).

At several crucial points God manifested his presence among the Israelites in the form of a cloud: in the wilderness (the “pillar of cloud” of Exod. 13:21 and elsewhere), on Mount Sinai (Exod. 19:9; 24:15), in the tabernacle (Exod. 40:34), in the temple at Jerusalem (1Kings 8:10), and frequently in the visions of Ezekiel (e.g., Ezek. 1:4; 10:3).

The NT continues the imagery of the cloud as a manifestation of divine presence in the story of the transfiguration (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7; Luke 9:36), and also in depictions of Jesus as a cloud-rider in Matt. 26:64; Rev. 14:14 (see Dan. 7:13). Jesus was hidden by a cloud when he ascended (Acts 1:9), and believers will be caught up by clouds at his return (1Thess. 4:17; Rev. 11:12).

Cornerstone

An architecturally important stone, giving rise to its figurative uses. The architectural uses refer to either a capstone or a foundation stone. Long interlocking stones used to tie the corners of a building together for stability were topped off with a capstone, or “head of the corner” (1Pet. 2:7 KJV, NRSV). The corner foundation stone was important for bearing weight and possibly for establishing the lines for the walls. Job 38:46 figuratively pictures God laying the earth’s foundation and cornerstone. References to a cornerstone in Ps. 118:22; Isa. 28:16; Zech. 10:4 are taken as messianic. Zechariah looks forward to the ruler from Judah of the messianic age. In Isaiah’s prophecy the corner foundation stone is of precious material and acts to ensure a true or square line. Like a good wall with aligned stones, the one who believes will not give way. Peter compares the church to believing, living stones built around Christ, the cornerstone (1Pet. 2:4–6). Psalm 118 highlights an irony: a stone rejected early in the building process is chosen by God to be the corner capstone, a metaphor applied to Jesus six times in the NT (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; Eph. 2:20; 1Pet. 2:7). See also Capstone.

Covenant

A pact/compact or an agreement (Heb. berit). The NT counterpart word is diathēkē, defined as a “legal disposition of personal goods.”

The covenant is something that binds parties together or obligates one party to the other. Although there are legal implications associated with covenant, the relational aspect of covenant should not be overlooked. A covenant is best understood as a relationship with related legalities. Marriage, for example, is a covenant that establishes and defines a relationship. This perhaps explains why God chose from the realm of relationships among humans the covenant metaphor to establish and communicate his intent in divine-human relationships.

Some covenants are between persons of equal status (parity treaties); others are between a master and a servant (suzerainty treaties), between nations, between clans, and between a husband and a wife (Mal. 2:14). To “cut a covenant” at any level of society implies a solemn commitment to a relationship.

The most significant covenant relationship in the biblical material is the one between God and humankind. The uniqueness of Israel’s covenant relationship with Yahweh in contrast to all surrounding nations is established on the basis of Deut. 32:89. Although Yahweh gave the nations their inheritance, he selected Israel for his own personal care; he established a relationship with the nation independent of and prior to the nation’s association with his land.

Covenant is a dominant theme that gives cohesiveness to the structure of the OT and distinguishes the history of Israel. The phrase “covenant history” can be used to describe the biblical literature that recounts the events and episodes of Israelite life. It is a macrogenre that characterizes the historical narratives of the OT. Although this large literary corpus of historical narrative shares a covenant perspective, the individual books within the narrative corpus are noted for the attention they give to various aspects of the covenant relationship. For example, Gen. 12–50 develops the covenant promises of seed and blessing through a number of subgenres such as genealogies and family stories. Joshua, on the other hand, engages several military subgenres to recount the tension between the promise of land occupation and the responsibility of Israel to occupy the land. Covenant history is a realistic presentation of the tensions associated with the covenant relationship between Yahweh and the nation of Israel.

Finally, the psalms have a direct covenant connection emphasizing covenant worship. Psalm 119 (esp. vv. 57–64) is filled with covenant terms that relate to God’s word (testimonies, laws, oath, judgments). Marching to the place of worship designated by the covenant is reflected in the Psalms of Ascent.

Although the covenant theme is less pervasive in the NT, its christological significance is profound. The NT highlights the significant messianic role of Christ in relation to the covenants. Paul references the new covenant in both books of Corinthians (1Cor. 11:25; 2Cor. 3:6). Each celebration of the Lord’s Supper reminds us that the shed blood of Christ is the blood of the new covenant. The new covenant is cut in connection with or on the basis of his death, burial, and resurrection (1Cor. 11:25). The writer of the book of Hebrews gives detailed attention to how the new covenant functions in contrast to the old Mosaic covenant. The writer explains that Jesus is the guarantor of a better covenant (7:22; 8:6–7). Finally, Paul indicates that we are now considered ministers of the new covenant ministry (2Cor. 3:6).

Creature

Whether animal or human, “creature” assumes creator. God’s unique creative activity is showcased in his majestic work: “creatures.” While the infinite God is not confined in the lives of his creatures, both are linked in a relationship of fidelity (Ps. 104).

A creature is a gift and has an obligation of service (Ps. 150). Scripture celebrates divine rule and creaturely dependence (Ps. 96). Creatures have roles, and the liturgy of doxology revels in a cosmic and eschatological drama (Ps. 148; Isa. 40:1231; 65:17–25). Humans are caretaking creatures (Ps. 8).

Desert

A broad designation for certain regions in Israel, typically rocky, although also plains, with little rainfall. These areas generally are uninhabited, and most often “wilderness” refers to specific regions surrounding inhabited Israel. A fair amount of Scripture’s focus with respect to the wilderness concerns Israel’s forty-year period of wandering in the wilderness after the exodus (see also Wilderness Wandering).

More specifically, the geographical locations designated “wilderness” fall into four basic categories: the Negev (south), Transjordan (east), Judean (eastern slope of Judean mountains), and Sinai (southwest).

The Negev makes up a fair amount of Israel’s southern kingdom, Judah. It is very rocky and also includes plateaus and wadis, which are dry riverbeds that can bloom after rains. Its most important city is Beersheba (see Gen. 21:14, 22 34), which often designates Israel’s southernmost border, as in the expression “from Dan to Beersheba” (e.g., 2Sam. 17:11).

Transjordan pertains to the area east of the Jordan River, the area through which the Israelites had to pass before crossing the Jordan on their way from Mount Sinai to Canaan. (Israel was denied direct passage to Canaan by the Edomites and Amorites [see Num. 20:14–21; 21:21–26].) Even though this region lay outside the promised land of Canaan, it was settled by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh after they had fulfilled God’s command to fight alongside the other tribes in conquering Canaan (Num. 32:1–42; Josh. 13:8; 22:1–34).

The Judean Desert is located on the eastern slopes of the Judean mountains, toward the Dead Sea. David fled there for refuge from Saul (1Sam. 21–23). It was also in this area that Jesus was tempted (Luke 4:1–13).

The Sinai Desert is a large peninsula, with the modern-day Gulf of Suez to the west and the Gulf of Aqaba to the east. In the ancient Near Eastern world, both bodies of water often were referred to as the “Red Sea,” which is the larger sea to the south. In addition to the region traditionally believed to contain the location of Mount Sinai (its exact location is unknown), the Sinai Desert is further subdivided into other areas known to readers of the OT: Desert of Zin (northeast, contains Kadesh Barnea), Desert of Shur (northwest, near Egypt), Desert of Paran (central).

Wilderness is commonly mentioned in the Bible, and although it certainly can have neutral connotations (i.e., simply describing a location), the uninhabited places often entail both positive (e.g., as a place of solitude) and negative (e.g., as a place of wrath) connotations, both in their actual geological properties and as metaphors. The very rugged and uninhabited nature of the wilderness easily lent itself to being a place of death (e.g., Deut. 8:15; Ps. 107:4–5; Jer. 2:6). It was also a place associated with Israel’s rebellions and struggles with other nations. Upon leaving Egypt, Israel spent forty years wandering the wilderness before entering Canaan, encountering numerous military conflicts along the way. This forty-year period was occasioned by a mass rebellion (Num. 14), hence casting a necessarily dark cloud over that entire period, and no doubt firming up subsequent negative connotations of “wilderness.” Similarly, “wilderness” connotes notions of exile from Israel, as seen in the ritual of the scapegoat (lit., “goat of removal” [see Lev. 16]). On the Day of Atonement, one goat was sacrificed to atone for the people’s sin, and another was sent off, likewise to atone for sin. The scapegoat was released into the desert, where it would encounter certain death, either by succumbing to the climate or through wild animals.

On the other hand, it is precisely in this uninhabited land that God also showed his faithfulness to his people, despite their prolonged punishment. He miraculously supplied bread (manna) and meat (quail) (Exod. 16; Num. 11), as well as water (Exod. 15:22–27; 17:1–7; Num. 20:1–13; 21:16–20). God’s care for Israel is amply summarized in Deut. 1:30–31: “The Lord your God, who is going before you, will fight for you, as he did for you in Egypt, before your very eyes, and in the wilderness. There you saw how the Lord your God carried you, as a father carries his son, all the way you went until you reached this place.”

The harsh realities of the wilderness also made it an ideal place to seek sanctuary and protection. David fled from Saul to the wilderness, the Desert of Ziph (1Sam. 23:14; 26:2–3; cf. Ps. 55:7). Similarly, Jeremiah sought a retreat in the desert from sinful Israel (Jer. 9:2).

Related somewhat to this last point is Jesus’ own attitude toward the wilderness. It was there that he retreated when he could no longer move about publicly (John 11:54). John the Baptist came from the wilderness announcing Jesus’ ministry (Matt. 3:1–3; Mark 1:2–4; Luke 3:2–6; John 1:23; cf. Isa. 40:3–5). It was also in the desert that Jesus went to be tempted but also overcame that temptation.

Eagle

The word “eagle” may represent more than one species of eagle and vulture, particularly the griffon vulture. A bird of prey, the eagle is classed among the unclean birds in the OT (Lev. 11:13). The eagle was considered one of the marvels of the world (Prov. 30:19), proverbial for its speed and power (Deut. 28:49; 2Sam. 1:23; Ezek. 17:3), its inaccessibility among the high rocks (Job 39:27; Jer. 49:16), and its tutelage and protection of its young (Deut. 32:11). The eagle serves to illustrate the renewed strength of those whose hope is in God (Ps. 103:5; Isa. 40:31).

In Exod. 19:4 God brings his royal-priestly people to himself at Mount Sinai “on eagles’ wings,” while in Deut. 32:1011 the eagle illustrates the divine protection of Israel. Because of its proverbial attributes and associations, the eagle is included in a number of visionary images (Ezek. 1:10; Dan. 7:4; Rev. 4:7; 8:13).

Earth

Israel shared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. This worldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon the primeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having four rims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rims were sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters. God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth and shaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:1213).

Israel’s promised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen. 13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing, fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orienting points for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise, “flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27). Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity and judgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationship with God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; this could ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits” people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

For Israel, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen. 15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithful obedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen. 18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was the supreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev. 25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance” to give (1Sam. 26:19; 2Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). The Levites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did the other tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20; Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter and to occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3). Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when they accused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing with milk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however, no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance” (Josh. 13:1).

Faith

Faith in the context of the OT rests on a foundation that the person or object of trust, belief, or confidence is reliable. Trust in Yahweh is expressed through loyalty and obedience. The theme of responsive obedience is emphasized in the Torah (Exod. 19:5). In the later history of Israel, faithfulness to the law became the predominant expression of faith (Dan. 1:8; 6:10). OT faith, then, is a moral response rather than abstract intellect or emotion.

Faith is a central theological concept in the NT. In relational terms, faith is foremost personalized as the locus of trust and belief in the person of Jesus Christ.

In the Gospels, Jesus is spoken of not as the subject of faith (as believing in God), but as the object of faith. In the Synoptic Gospels, faith is seen most often in connection with the ministry of Jesus. Miracles, in particular healings, are presented as taking place in response to the faith of the one in need of healing or the requester. In the Gospel of John, faith (belief) is presented as something that God requires of his people (6:2829).

In the book of Acts, “faith/belief” is used to refer to Jews and Gentiles converting to following the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and becoming part of the Christian community. The book correlates faith in Christ closely with repentance (Acts 11:21; 19:18; 20:21; 26:18).

Paul relates faith to righteousness and justification (Rom. 3:22; 5:11; Gal. 3:6). In Ephesians faith is shown as instrumental in salvation: “For it is by grace you have been saved, through faith—and this not from yourselves, it is the gift of God” (2:8).

In Hebrews, faith is described as “being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see” (11:1). Faith thus is viewed as something that can be accomplished in the life of the believer—a calling of God not yet tangible or seen. To possess faith is to be loyal to God and to the gospel of Jesus Christ despite all obstacles. In the Letter of James, genuine works naturally accompany genuine faith. Works, however, are expressed in doing the will of God. The will of God means, for example, caring for the poor (James 2:15–16).

In 1Peter, Christ is depicted as the broker of faith in God (1:21), whereas in 2Peter and Jude faith is presented as received from God (2Pet. 1:1). In the Letters of John “to believe” is used as a litmus test for those who possess eternal life: “You who believe in the name of the Son of God, ... you have eternal life” (1John 5:13).

Fast

Fasting, often linked with prayer, was one avenue of appeal to God in the face of crises, both national and personal. Moses ascended to Mount Sinai and was with God forty days and nights without eating bread or drinking water, both before and after the Israelites’ sin with the golden calf (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 9:818). David fasted when his son was dying (2Sam. 12:15–23). Esther called all the Jews of Susa to fast for three days before she ventured before the king (Esther 4:15–17). Joel called the people to repentance and fasting as the land was devastated by a locust plague (Joel 1:13–14; 2:12). Forty days of fasting, an echo of Moses’ experience, prepared Jesus to face the devil’s temptations (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.).

The OT prophets criticized Israelites who presumed that their religious obligations were met simply by fasting (Isa. 58:1–10; Zech. 7:1–5). When asked why his disciples did not fast and pray, Jesus indicated that sometimes fasting is inappropriate (Matt. 9:14–17 pars.). Luke recorded an addition to Jesus’ statement about new wine in old wineskins: “No one after drinking old wine wants the new, for they say, ‘The old is better’” (Luke 5:39), perhaps suggesting that the accumulation of fasting practices was “new wine” and they ought simply to observe the Day of Atonement.

Father

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:617). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

Flood

Recounted in Gen. 6:59:19, the flood is the event whereby God destroys all creatures except for Noah, his family, and a gathering of animals. The account is highly literary and God-centered. It opens and closes with Noah’s three sons (6:10; 9:18–19). Noah’s obedience is highlighted (7:5, 9, 16). God is the protagonist, and Noah remains silent.

In Gen. 6:5–22, God observes the grand scale of human wickedness, determines to destroy all life, and selects righteous Noah to build an ark. God’s “seeing” is judicial investigation (6:5, 13) that counters the sons of God who “saw” (6:2), just as his pained heart counters humankind’s wicked heart (6:5–6). God’s second statement, “I will wipe from the face of the earth the human race” (6:7), is his judicial sentence (cf. 3:15–19), affecting all life in the domain of human care (1:28; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 36:6; Hos. 4:3; Joel 1:20).

The earth’s corruption and violence (Gen. 6:12–13) reflect a spectrum of evil that has despoiled a creation that was once “very good” (1:31; cf. 6:17; 7:21; 8:17; 9:11). God’s destruction responds to the moral corruption of the earth. The ark is a rectangular vessel designed for floating rather than sailing (6:14–15). Noah builds a microcosm of the earth to save its life. The boat’s windowlike openings and three decks reflect the cosmology of Gen. 1 (heavens, water, earth [cf. 6:16]). God makes a promise that Noah will survive and receive a covenant from God (6:18), fulfilled in the Noahic covenant following the flood (9:9, 11, 14–17).

Genesis 7:1–24 recounts the boarding of the ark and then the rising waters. Two numbering systems are used by the narrator in the flood narrative: one for dates of Noah’s age (day, month, year) and one for periods between flood stages. Both systems number between 365 and 370 days. The flood is portrayed as a reversal of the second and third days of creation. Watery boundaries that God once separated collapse (cf. 1:6–10). The rising flood is described in three phases: rising and lifting the ark (7:17), increasing greatly and floating the ark on the surface (7:18), and covering all the high mountains (7:19). Total destruction is amplified by reversing the order of creation—people, animals, birds (7:23)—with “all/every” occurring repeatedly in 7:21–23.

Genesis 8:1–22 recounts the disembarking and Noah’s sacrifice. Genesis 8:1 is the structural and theological center, with God fulfilling (=“remember”) his covenant promise for Noah’s safety. The ark rests on one mountain within the range in eastern Turkey (Kurdistan). The earth’s drying occurs as a process (8:3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 14), and echoes of creation reappear (e.g., “wind” [8:1; cf. 1:2]). Although the old curse is not lifted (cf. 5:29), God promises not to add to it (8:21). The flood has not reformed the human heart; it has only stopped the violence. God’s oath of restoration reaffirms the seamless rhythm of seasons that compose a full year (8:22).

Genesis 9:1–19 recounts the restoration of world order. Since murder was part of the antediluvian violence (6:11, 13), God’s law recalibrates earthly morality (9:5). God’s second postdiluvian speech encodes his plan for the broader preservation of creation (9:8–17). “My rainbow” is God’s confirming sign (9:13). The meteorological phenomenon of the storm is now harnessed as an image of peace. The cosmic warrior “hangs up” his bow in divine disarmament. Humankind now shares the responsibility of justice with God, illustrated in Noah’s first speech of cursing and blessing (9:20–27).

Fulfill

The various Hebrew and Greek words that express the idea of fulfillment occur hundreds of times in the Bible, and the concept often is present even when the specific word is not. At the basic level, fulfillment indicates a relationship between two (or more) things in which the second is said to “fill up” the significance of the first. Frequently this takes the form of a specific promise that is said to be fulfilled when the person, object, or event referred to comes to pass. There are countless examples of this type of fulfillment, some of which even quote the specific promise that is being fulfilled. The seventy years of Babylonian captivity prophesied by Jeremiah (Jer. 29:10) are said to be fulfilled when Cyrus permits the Jews to return to the land (Ezra 1:14). Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem (Matt. 2:1–6) fulfills the promise of a ruler who will shepherd Israel (Mic. 5:2).

But the concept of fulfillment goes beyond specific promises that are then said to be fulfilled in a particular person, object, or event. In the broadest sense of the term, one can say that the NT fulfills what the OT promises. After his resurrection, Jesus reminds his disciples, “Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms” (Luke 24:44). He then provides a summary of the entire OT message: “The Messiah will suffer and rise from the dead on the third day, and repentance for the forgiveness of sins will be preached in his name to all nations, beginning at Jerusalem” (Luke 24:46–47).

Glory

The tangible presence of God, experienced as overwhelming power and splendor. The main Hebrew word referring to glory, kabod, has the root meaning “heavy” (1Sam. 4:18), which in other contexts can mean “intense” (Exod. 9:3; NIV: “terrible”), “wealthy” (i.e., “heavy in possessions” [Gen. 13:2]), and “high reputation” (Gen. 34:19; NIV: “most honored”). When used of God, it refers to his person and his works. God reveals his glory to Israel and to Egypt at the crossing of the sea (Exod. 14:4, 1719). He carefully reveals his glory to Moses after Israel’s sin with the golden calf in order to assure him that he will not abandon them (33:12–23).

In the NT the glory of God is made real in the person of Jesus Christ (John 1:14; Heb. 1:3). He is, after all, the very presence of God. When he returns on the clouds, he will fully reveal God’s glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27).

Heart

Physiologically, the heart is an organ in the body, and in the Bible it is also used in a number of metaphors.

Metaphorically, the heart refers to the mind, the will, the seat of emotions, or even the whole person. It also refers to the center of something or its inner part. These metaphors come from the heart’s importance and location.

Mind. The heart refers to the mind, but not the brain, and in these cases does not involve human physiology. It is a metaphor, and while the neurophysiology of the heart may be interesting in its own right, it has no bearing on this use of language. Deuteronomy 6:5 issues the command to love God with all one’s heart, soul, and strength. When the command is repeated in the Gospels, it occurs in three variations (Matt. 22:37; Mark 12:30; Luke 10:27). Common to all three is the addition of the word “mind.” The Gospel writers want to be sure that the audience hears Jesus adding “mind,” but this addition is based on the fact that the meaning of the Hebrew word for “heart” includes the mind.

The mental activities of the metaphorical heart are abundant. The heart is where a person thinks (Gen. 6:5; Deut. 7:17; 1Chron. 29:18; Rev. 18:7), where a person comprehends and has understanding (1Kings 3:9; Job 17:4; Ps. 49:3; Prov. 14:13; Matt. 13:15). The heart makes plans and has intentions (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Prov. 20:5; 1Chron. 29:18; Jer. 23:20). One believes with the heart (Luke 24:25; Acts 8:37; Rom. 10:9). The heart is the site of wisdom, discernment, and skill (Exod. 35:34; 36:2; 1Kings 3:9; 10:24). The heart is the place of memory (Deut. 4:9; Ps. 119:11). The heart plays the role of conscience (2Sam. 24:10; 1John 3:2021).

It is often worth the effort to substitute “mind” for “heart” when reading the Bible in order to grasp the mental dimension. For example, after telling the Israelites to love God with all their heart, Moses says, “These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts” (Deut. 6:6). Reading it instead as “be on your mind” changes our perspective, and in this case the idiom “on your mind” is clearer and more accurate. The following verses instruct parents to talk to their children throughout the day about God’s words. In order for parents to do this, God’s requirements and deeds need to be constantly on their minds, out of their love for him. Similarly, love for God and loyalty are expressed by meditation on and determination to obey his law (Ps. 119:11, 112). The law is not merely a list of rules; it is also a repository of a worldview in which the Lord is the only God. To live consistently with this truth requires careful, reflective thought.

Emotions and attitude. The heart, as the seat of emotion, is associated with a number of feelings and sentiments, such as gladness (Exod. 4:14; Acts 2:26), hatred (Lev. 19:17), pride (Deut. 8:14), resentment (Deut. 15:10), dread (Deut. 28:67), sympathy (Judg. 5:9), love (Judg. 16:15), sadness (1Sam. 1:8; John 16:6), and jealousy and ambition (James 3:14). The heart is also the frame of reference for attitudes such as willingness, courage, and desire.

Heaven

The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2Cor. 12:24, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.

Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).

Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1Thess. 4:14).

Hope

At times simply indicating a wish (2Cor. 11:1), in the Bible the word “hope” most often designates a disposition of soul, the grounds for one’s hope, or the outcome for which one hopes. At its core, biblical hope is hope in God, rooted in God’s covenant faithfulness (Ps. 62:58; Jer. 14:8; 17:13; Rom. 4:18; 5:1–5). Hope trusts God in the present and lives even now on the strength of God’s future accomplishments (Gal. 5:5; Heb. 11:1).

In the NT, hope is closely associated with Christ and his saving work. Christians now live by hope in Christ (Eph. 1:12; 1Pet. 1:3; 3:15); indeed, he is “Christ Jesus our hope” (1Tim. 1:1), and his future appearing is “the blessed hope” (Titus 2:13). Thus, hope refers to eschatological glory (2Cor. 3:11–12; Eph. 1:18). It is “the hope of the resurrection” (Acts 23:6; cf. 24:15; 26:6–9), our transformation into Christ’s likeness (1John 3:1–3). That expectation stimulates various hopes for God’s plans to be realized in one’s own or others’ lives (1Cor. 9:10, 13; Phil. 2:19, 23; 2Tim. 2:25; 2John 12). So hope is named repeatedly as an essential Christian attribute (Rom. 12:12; 15:4, 13; 1Cor. 13:13).

Horse

Horses first appear in the Bible in Gen. 47:17 as a part of the livestock traded for grain under Joseph’s supervision during a time of famine. Due to the military role of horses and the need to depend on God alone, the king of Israel was forbidden to hold great numbers of horses (Deut. 17:16), and the people were commanded not to obtain horses from the principal supplier of the time, Egypt, which happened despite the prohibition (2Chron. 1:16). King David first introduced chariots to the armies of Israel when he kept one hundred chariot horses out of a large number he had captured from the kingdom of Zobah (2Sam. 8:34). The use of chariots expanded under Solomon, and he is said to have owned as many as twelve thousand chariot horses (1Kings 4:26). He also built specific chariot cities in order to solidify Israel’s defenses (1Kings 10:26). This move was deeply unfaithful, however, and was denounced by the prophets as an indulgence in pagan luxury and sinful self-reliance. Isaiah proclaimed, “Woe to those who go down to Egypt for help, who rely on horses, who trust in the multitude of their chariots and in the great strength of their horsemen, but do not ... seek help from the Lord” (Isa. 31:1). The very real military advantages that came from chariot warfare gave God’s people a reason, however false, to trust their own power rather than the provision of God.

Horses are often mentioned as a literary image meant to evoke speed, energy, and strength (Ps. 20:7). Jesus’ own entry into Jerusalem was on a donkey rather than a horse, emphasizing the nonmilitary nature of his messiahship (Matt. 21:5). In Rev. 6:1–8 horses of different colors represent four judgments of God upon the earth.

Humble

In the OT, humility often refers to people of low social status, the disenfranchised, and those who suffer oppression and poverty (e.g., Prov. 22:2223; Amos 2:7; Zech. 7:10). Scripture sometimes associates those socially marginalized with the ethical dimension of humility, thus making the social status equivalent to a subjective spiritual quality (Pss. 22:26; 37:11–17; 146:7–9; Zeph. 3:11–13). Social humiliation, however, does not necessarily lead to humility as a virtue. In a number of instances in the OT, the two remain distinct. In its subjective quality, humility involves submission to one in authority, usually to God (Exod. 10:3; Deut. 8:2–3, 16; Ps. 119:67, 71, 75). On some occasions humility is related to the act of repentance before God (e.g., Zeph. 2:1–3). When paired with “fear of the Lord,” humility implies a person who lives in a posture of pious submission before God (Prov. 15:31–33; 22:4).

Such is the case with Moses, whom the writer of Numbers describes in the following way: “Now Moses was a very humble man, more humble than anyone else on the face of the earth” (Num. 12:3). Moses’ humility in this situation is displayed in his intimate relationship with, and by his submissive attitude toward, the sovereign God (12:4–9).

In the NT, Christians take Christ as their model of humility (Matt. 11:29; Phil. 2:6–11). The NT writers also call on Christians to humble themselves before God (James 4:10; 1Pet. 5:5–6) as well as others, including their enemies (Rom. 12:14–21; Phil. 2:3).

Job

The question of undeserved suffering has plagued humanity for as long as we have written records, as is demonstrated by several ancient Mesopotamian literary compositions going back to Sumerian times. Today too we wonder why bad things happen to good people. The book of Job raises this issue in the person of Job, a pious and blameless man who suffers unspeakable tragedies. However, the question of why Job suffers leads to an even more important question: Where can wisdom be found?

The genre of the book is a debate, the topic being the nature and source of wisdom. The various parts of the book contribute to this debate, beginning with the prose prologue (1:12:13) that introduces Job as a perfect wise man (1:1, 8–10). God presents Job as an example of a godly and wise man to “the Satan” (or “the accuser,” best understood as one of God’s angels, not the devil). No matter his exact identify, the accuser does not question Job’s character, but he does challenge his motivation. He believes that Job is righteous because God rewards him. God accepts the challenge and allows the accuser to harm his possessions and family, followed by a second round of suffering where the accuser afflicts by taking away his health. Job, however, persists in his proper attitude toward God. At the end of the prologue, we also hear of Job’s three friends, who move in to offer sympathy and support. They sit with him for seven days in silence.

Job is the first to break the silence, and what he says unsettles his friends. He complains about his present condition, cursing the day of his birth (Job 3). Job’s complaint triggers a debate about the cause of Job’s suffering as well as the best prescription to solve his problem (Job 4–31).

The three friends keep repeating the same argument. Job suffers because he is a sinner. They represent a traditional retribution theology, which states that if you sin, you suffer; therefore, if you suffer, then you must have sinned. The solution is obvious. Job needs to repent (4:7–11; 11:13–20). For his part, Job knows that he has not sinned in such a way to deserve to suffer as he is. But this creates a theological problem for him, since he too believes in the same theology of retribution held by the three friends. Thus, in his mind, God is unjust (9:21–24). Accordingly, his solution is to find God and present his case before him (23:2–7).

Although the subject of their debate is Job’s suffering, the heart of it concerns wisdom. Who is wise? Who has the correct insight into Job’s suffering? Both Job and the friends set themselves up as sources of wisdom and ridicule the wisdom of the other (11:12; 12:1–3, 12; 13:12; 15:1–13). The question “Who is wise?” dominates the book.

After their debate, a new character surprisingly emerges from the background. Elihu has observed the debate silently, but now he feels compelled to speak (Job 32–37). He is young and thus has deferred to the wisdom of the elderly, but he has been sorely disappointed. Now he realizes that wisdom is not always a matter of age, but comes from “the spirit in a person” (32:8). The reader expects a new argument from this brash young man, but instead Job is treated to another blast of the retribution theology of the three friends: Job suffers because he is a sinner (34:11, 25–27, 37).

Elihu represents another type of person who claims wisdom. Rather than age, he believes the spirit in a person gives wisdom. However, he comes up with the same old descriptions and solutions. This viewpoint is critiqued by silence; he is ignored. No one responds to his unpersuasive opinion.

At the end of chapter 31, Job had expressed his wish for an audience with God. Now he gets his wish. God appears in a whirlwind, an indication of his displeasure, and challenges Job’s purported wisdom: “Who is this that obscures my plans with words without knowledge?” (38:2). God then bombards Job with a series of questions that he cannot possibly answer, since he is not God. God also describes how he is the one who distributes and withholds power and wisdom to his creatures.

He never addresses the reasons for Job’s suffering or the question of suffering in general. That is not the main purpose of the book. He asserts his wisdom, thus answering the question of the book: “Who is wise?” Only God is wise. What is the proper response to God’s wisdom and power? Repentance and submission, and thus Job responds two times (40:3–5; 42:1–6).

The epilogue raises a number of interesting questions for the interpreter. After Job repents, God restores his health and prosperity beyond what he had enjoyed at the beginning of the book. Does this not concede to the argument of the three friends and Elihu? All along they have been urging him to repent and be restored. However, such an interpretation misses a key point. Job has not repented of any sin that had led to his suffering in the first place. No, he has passed that test. However, as time wore on, he had grown impatient with God. He never takes the counsel of his wife to “curse God and die” (2:9), but he does question God’s justice without ever breaking relationship.

A second issue concerns God’s statement that Job has “spoken the truth about me” (42:8). Did God not just spend two chapters criticizing him? The best way to understand this comment is to understand it as God’s affirmation not of every word that Job has spoken about him, but rather of how Job has responded to God in the end. After all, he had never abandoned God, even in his darkest hour.

Judgment

Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are important here.

The word shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon the Egyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesies God’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as the Syrians execute judgment on Israel (2Chron. 24:24).

The most frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat, “judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just (Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut. 10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). At the waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for the people (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim, “judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel (Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:78) and worshiping false gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).

One key word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar to mishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27; 2Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesus himself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).

Another key word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2; Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment (Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3; 5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2Pet. 2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).

Justice

The concept of justice pervades the Bible, especially, though not exclusively, the OT. The biblical concept of justice is an embodiment of two contemporary concepts: righteousness and justice. The former designates compliance with the divine norm, while the latter emphasizes conformity to a societal standard of what is right and equitable. Focusing exclusively on the latter hinders the correct understanding of justice in the biblical sense.

The source of justice is God himself. It flows from his essential character as one who is both just and righteous, whose actions are flawless, perfect, upright, and just (Deut. 32:4; 1Sam. 12:7; 2Sam. 22:31; Job 37:23; Ps. 89:14). God is the righteous lawgiver, hence the one who establishes the norm for right conduct (Deut. 4:48; Ps. 19:7–9). He requires justice of all his creatures (cf. Gen. 9:5–6; Exod. 21:12, 28–29). God also judges righteously (Gen. 18:25; 1Kings 8:32; Ps. 9:4, 9; Jer. 9:24) and defends and vindicates the weak and oppressed (Deut. 10:18; Ps. 103:6). The responsibility of maintaining justice in the human community, however, he delegates to its leaders, such as civil magistrates or political officials, and requires them to execute this responsibility with integrity, equity, and impartiality (Deut. 1:16–17; 16:18–20; Ps. 82:2–4; Prov. 31:8–9; John 7:24; 1Pet. 2:13–14). God’s requirement of justice in the human community is not limited to its leaders only; it is incumbent upon everyone therein (Ps. 15:1–5; Mic. 6:8; Zech. 7:9; 8:17; Matt. 23:23).

King

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan.3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:1420). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

Levi

A great-grandson of Abraham, grandson of Isaac, and the third son of Jacob by Leah (Gen. 29:34). Levi’s sons were Gershon, Kohath, and Merari (46:11). The Israelite Levites were descended from Levi. Levi’s only notable act was a brutal slaughter to avenge his sister Dinah’s honor. When Shechem violated Dinah (34:2), Levi and his brother Simeon duped all the males of the city in which Shechem lived by suggesting that they will be able to marry Israelite women, such as Dinah, if they will first be circumcised. As the men of the city lay in pain from the procedure, the two brothers killed the unsuspecting men (Gen. 34). From his deathbed, Jacob cursed Levi and his brother Simeon for their actions (49:57).

Leviathan

A transliteration of a Hebrew word (liwyatan) that refers to some kind of sea creature, variously mentioned in OT passages extolling God for his mighty work and power (Job 3:8; 41:134; Pss. 74:14; 104:26; Isa. 26:20–27:1). Leviathan is usually depicted as a multiheaded and chaotic dragon that wreaks havoc upon the cosmos and can be slain only by the gods. Drawing on this mythological background, Ps. 74:14 praises God because during his work of creation he “crushed the heads of Leviathan and gave it as food to the creatures of the desert.” None of these passages implies the actual existence of the creature described; on the contrary, they draw on this material to metaphorically accent God’s unique and preeminent authority over the forces of chaos. Revelation may draw on this imagery as well, for God alone is able to destroy the beast and the seven-headed dragon (12:3; 13:1; 19:20) and thereby bring peace to the earth.

Light

God begins his creation with light, which precedes the creation of sun, moon, and stars and throughout Scripture is an unqualified good (Gen. 1:35, 15–18; Exod. 10:23; 13:21). In the ancient world, people rarely traveled at night and usually went to bed soon after sunset. The only light in the home was a small oil lamp set on a stand, which burned expensive olive oil. Light is a biblical synonym for life (Job 3:20; John 8:12). Seeing the light means living (Ps. 49:19; see also Job 33:30). Conversely, darkness is often a symbol of adversity, disaster, and death (Job 30:26; Isa. 8:22; Jer. 23:12; Lam. 3:2).

John, who offers perhaps the most profound meditations on light, claims that God is light (1John 1:5). The predicate appropriates the intrinsic beauty of light, a quality that draws people’s hearts back to the author of beauty. For the apostle, light represents truth and signifies God’s will in opposition to the deception of the world (John 1:9; 12:46). Light stands for purity and signifies God’s holiness as opposed to the unrighteousness of the world (John 3:19–21). Light is where God is, and it radiates from the place of fellowship between God and his creation (John 1:7).

Locust

The Bible is full of teeming creatures and swarming things. These creatures, insects, often play significant roles in the stories and the events described in them. From the first chapter of the Bible to the very last book, these flying, creeping, hopping, and crawling things are prominent.

Terms for Insects

Insects are described in the Bible with both general and specific terms. In the OT, there are three general terms for insects and twenty terms used to refer to specific types of insects. In the NT, two different types of insects are referenced: gnats and locusts.

The two most common general terms for insects are variously translated. Terms and phrases used to describe them include “living creatures” (Gen. 1:20), “creatures that move along the ground” (Gen. 1:2426; 6:7, 20; 7:8, 14, 23; 8:17, 19; Lev. 5:2; Ezek. 38:20; Hos. 2:18), that which “moves” (Gen. 9:3), “swarming things” (Lev. 11:10), “flying insects” (Lev. 11:20–21, 23; Deut. 14:19), “creatures” (Lev. 11:43), “crawling things” (Lev. 22:5; Ezek. 8:10), “reptiles” (1Kings 4:33), “teeming creatures” (Ps. 104:25), “small creatures” (Ps. 148:10), and “sea creatures” (Hab. 1:14). The other general term for insects is used with reference to swarms of insects, typically flies (Exod. 8:21–22, 24, 29; Pss. 78:45; 105:31). Specific insects named in Scripture are listed below.

Ants. Ants are used in Proverbs as an example of and encouragement toward wisdom. In 6:6 ants serve as an example for sluggards to reform their slothful ways. Also, in 30:25 ants serve as an example of creatures that, despite their diminutive size, are wise enough to make advance preparations for the long winter.

Bees. Bees are used both literally and figuratively in Scripture. Judges 14:8 refers to honeybees, the product of which becomes the object of Samson’s riddle. The other three uses of bees in the OT are figurative of swarms of enemies against God’s people (Deut. 1:44; Ps. 118:12; Isa. 7:18).

Fleas. Fleas are referenced in the OT only by David to indicate his insignificance in comparison with King Saul (1Sam. 24:14; 26:20). The irony of the comparison becomes clear with David’s later ascendancy.

Flies. The plague of flies follows that of gnats on Egypt (Exod. 8:20–31). Although the gnats are never said to have left Egypt, the flies are removed upon Moses’ prayer. In Eccles. 10:1 the stench of dead flies is compared to the impact that folly can have on the wise. In Isa. 7:18 flies represent Egypt being summoned by God as his avenging agents on Judah’s sin. In addition, one of the gods in Ekron was named “Baal-Zebub,” which means “lord of the flies” (2Kings 1:2–3, 6, 16). The reference to Satan in the NT using a similar name is likely an adaptation of the OT god of Ekron (Matt. 10:25; 12:24, 27; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15, 18–19).

Gnats. Gnats are distinguished from flies in the OT, though the distinction is not always apparent. Gnats are employed by God in the third plague on Egypt (Exod. 8:16–19), while flies form the means of punishment in the fourth plague. The two are listed together in Ps. 105:31 and appear parallel, though the former may be a reference to a swarm. Gnats were also used by Jesus to illustrate the hypocrisy of the Pharisees and the scribes (Matt. 23:24).

Hornets. The Bible uses hornets in Scripture as an agent of God’s destruction. The term occurs three times in the OT. In each occurrence these stinging insects refer to God’s expulsion of the Canaanites from the land that God promised to his people. The first two times, Exod. 23:28 and Deut. 7:20, hornets are used in reference to a promise of what God will do; the third time, Josh. 24:12, they illustrate what God did.

Locusts. Of particular interest is the use of locusts in the Bible. The term or a similar nomenclature occurs close to fifty times in the NIV. Locusts demonstrate a number of characteristics in Scripture. First, they are under God’s control (Exod. 10:13–19). As such, they have no king (Prov. 30:27). They serve God’s purposes. Second, locusts often occur in very large numbers or swarms (Judg. 6:5; Jer. 46:23; Nah. 3:15). At times, their numbers can be so large as to cause darkness in the land (Exod. 10:15). Third, in large numbers these insects have been known to ravage homes, devour the land, devastate fields, and debark trees (Exod. 10:12–15; Deut. 28:38; 1Kings 8:37; 2Chron. 7:13; Pss. 78:46; 105:34; Isa. 33:4; Joel 1:4–7). Due to their fierceness, they were compared to horses (Rev. 9:7). Fourth, locusts hide at night (Nah. 3:17). Finally, certain types of locusts were used as food.

Moths. Moths are referred to seven times in the OT and four times in the NT. Job uses moths to illustrate the fragility of the unrighteous before God (4:19) and the impermanence of their labors (27:18). The other references to moths in Scripture present them as the consumers of the wealth (garments) and pride of humankind as a means of God’s judgment (Job 13:28; Ps. 39:11; Isa. 50:9; 51:8; Hos. 5:12; Matt. 6:19–20; Luke 12:33; James 5:2).

Functions of Insects in Scripture

As food. Insects also are mentioned in Scripture as food. Certain types of locusts are listed as clean and eligible for consumption. The NT describes the diet of John the Baptist, which consisted of locusts and wild honey—a diet entirely dependent on insects (Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6). The OT also notes Samson enjoying the labor of bees as food (Judg. 14:8–9).

Used figuratively. Most often, insects are used figuratively in Scripture. They are used in the proverbs of Scripture to illustrate wisdom. The sages wrote about ants (Prov. 6:6; 30:25), locusts (Prov. 30:27), and even dead flies (Eccles. 10:1) both to extol wisdom and to encourage its development in humankind.

Another figurative use of insects is in the riddle about bees and honey posed by Samson to the Philistines (Judg. 14:12–18). As noted above, Samson ate honey (Judg. 14:8–9; cf. 1Sam. 14:25–29, 43). Also, Scripture describes the promised land as a place of “milk and honey.”

Insects also are used to symbolize pursuing enemies (Deut. 1:44; Ps. 118:12; Isa. 7:18), innumerable forces (Judg. 6:5; 7:12; Ps. 105:34; Jer. 46:23; Joel 2:25), insignificance (Num. 13:33; 1Sam. 24:14; 26:20; Job 4:19; 27:18; Ps. 109:23; Eccles. 12:5; Isa. 40:22), vulnerability (Job 4:19), God’s incomparable nature (Job 39:20), the brevity of life (Ps. 109:23), wisdom and organization (Prov. 30:27), and an invading army (Isa. 7:18; Jer. 51:14, 27), and they are employed in a taunt against Israel’s enemies (Nah. 3:15–17), a lesson on hypocrisy (Matt. 23:24), and an image of eschatological judgment (Rev. 9:4–11).

Manger

A container or basin that holds the feed for domesticated farm animals such as cattle, sheep, or horses (Prov. 14:4; KJV: “crib”). For want of a room at the inn, Mary wrapped Jesus in cloths and placed him in a manger shortly after his birth (Luke 2:7). Nearby, shepherds were told by angels that Christ the Lord had been born in Bethlehem, and that the sign to them would be a baby wrapped in cloths lying in a manger (2:12). They journeyed to Bethlehem and found Jesus just as the angels had said (2:16).

Mark

Mark’s Gospel is a fast-paced, action-packed narrative that portrays Jesus as the mighty Messiah and Son of God, who suffers and dies as the servant of the Lord—a ransom price for sins. Mark’s purpose is to provide an authoritative account of the “good news” about Jesus Christ and to encourage believers to follow Jesus’ example by remaining faithful to their calling through persecution and even martyrdom. A theme verse is Mark 10:45: “For even the Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many.”

Mark’s narrative may be divided into two main parts. The first half of the story demonstrates that Jesus is the mighty Messiah and Son of God (1:18:26); the second half reveals that the Messiah’s role is to suffer and die as a sacrifice for sins (8:27–16:8).

Unlike Matthew and Luke, Mark does not begin with stories of Jesus’ birth but instead moves directly to his public ministry. As in the other Gospels, John the Baptist is the “messenger” who prepares the way for the Messiah (cf. Isa. 40:3; Mal. 3:1). John preaches a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins and announces the “more powerful” one, the Messiah, who will come after him (1:7). When Jesus is baptized by John, the Spirit descends on him, empowering him for ministry. After his temptation (or testing) by Satan in the desert, Jesus returns to Galilee and launches his ministry, proclaiming the “good news” (gospel) that “the time has come.... The kingdom of God has come near” (1:15).

During his Galilean ministry, Jesus demonstrates extraordinary authority in teaching, healing, and exorcism. He calls fishermen from their occupation, and they drop everything and follow him (1:16–20). He claims authority to forgive sins (2:10) and authority over the Sabbath command (2:28). He reveals power over natural forces, calming the sea (4:35–41), walking on water (6:45–52), and feeding huge crowds with a few loaves and fishes (6:30–44; 8:1–13). The people stand “amazed” and “astonished” (a major theme in Mark) at Jesus’ teaching and miracles, and his popularity soars.

Jesus’ authority and acclaim provoke opposition from the religious leaders of Israel, who are jealous of his influence. The scribes and Pharisees accuse him of claiming the prerogative of God (2:7), associating with undesirable sinners (2:16), breaking the Sabbath (2:24), and casting out demons by Satan’s powers (3:22). They conspire to kill him (3:6).

A sense of mystery and awe surrounds Jesus’ identity. When he calms the sea, the disciples wonder, “Who is this?” (4:41), and King Herod wonders if this might be John the Baptist risen from the dead (6:16). Adding to this sense of mystery is what has come to be called the “messianic secret.” Jesus silences demons who identify him as the Messiah and orders those he heals not to tell anyone what has happened. This secrecy is not, as some have claimed, a literary device invented by Mark to explain Jesus’ unmessianic life; rather, it is Jesus’ attempt to calm inappropriate messianic expectations and to define his messianic mission on his own terms.

The critical turning point in the narrative comes in 8:27–33, when Peter, as representative of the disciples, declares that Jesus is the Messiah. The authority that Jesus has demonstrated up to this point confirms that he is God’s agent of salvation. Yet Jesus startles the disciples by announcing that his messianic task is to go to Jerusalem to suffer and die. Peter rebukes him, but Jesus responds, “Get behind me, Satan! ... You do not have in mind the concerns of God, but merely human concerns” (8:33). Jesus will accomplish salvation not by crushing the Roman occupiers, but by offering his life as a sacrifice for sins.

In the second half of the Gospel, Jesus journeys to Jerusalem, three times predicting that he will be arrested and killed (8:31–32; 9:31; 10:33–34). The disciples repeatedly demonstrate pride, ignorance, and spiritual dullness (8:33; 9:32–34; 10:35–41), and Jesus teaches them that whoever wants to be first must become last (9:35); that to lead, one must serve (10:45); and that to be Jesus’ disciple requires taking up one’s cross and following him (8:34).

When he comes to Jerusalem, Jesus symbolically judges the nation by clearing the temple of merchants (11:15–17) and by cursing a fig tree (representing Israel), which subsequently withers (11:12–14, 20–21). He engages in controversies with the religious leaders (chaps. 11–12) and teaches the disciples that Jerusalem and the temple will be destroyed (chap. 13). Judas Iscariot, one of Jesus’ own disciples, betrays him. Jesus is arrested and brought to trial before the Jewish Sanhedrin, which finds him guilty of blasphemy. That council turns Jesus over to the Roman governor Pilate, who accedes to his crucifixion (chaps. 14–15).

The crucifixion scene in Mark is a dark and lonely one. Jesus is deserted by his followers, unjustly condemned, beaten by the soldiers, and mocked by all. Apparently deserted even by God, Jesus cries out from the cross, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (15:34). Yet the reader knows by this point in the story that Jesus’ death is not the tragedy that it seems. This is God’s means of accomplishing salvation. Upon Jesus’ death, the curtain of the temple is torn, opening a new way into God’s presence. The Roman centurion at the cross cries out, “Surely this man was the Son of God!” (15:39). The death of the Messiah is not a defeat; it is an atoning sacrifice for sins. Three days later Jesus rises from the dead, just as he has predicted. When Jesus’ women followers come to the tomb, the angel announces, “He has risen! He is not here” (16:6). Jesus the Messiah has turned tragedy into victory and has defeated sin, Satan, and death.

Mercy

Mercy is a distinguishing characteristic of the nature of God. God is called “the Father of mercies” (2Cor. 1:3 NRSV [NIV: “Father of compassion”]). God is “rich in mercy” (Eph. 2:4; cf. 2Sam. 24:14; Dan. 9:9). God’s mercy was demonstrated in his covenantal faithfulness to his people (1Kings 8:2324; Mic. 7:18–20). God redeemed the oppressed Israelites from slavery under Pharaoh because of his mercy, which was stirred when he heard their groaning and cry for help.

Jesus Christ lived a life full of mercy. He is, in a sense, the bodily manifestation of God’s mercy. Jesus expressed deep mercy whenever he saw the sick and the lost. The writers of the Gospels describe Jesus’ demonstrations of mercy when he healed the blind, the lame, the deaf, the leprous, the demon-possessed, and the dead (Matt. 9:36; 14:14; 20:34; Mark 1:41; 5:19; 6:34; 8:2; Luke 7:13; John 11:33). Jesus especially had compassion on the crowds, who did not have a spiritual leader, and he compared them to “sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36).

What is the proper response to God’s mercy and compassion? God expects believers to show the same kind of mercy toward other people. One of the best examples is the parable of the unmerciful servant (Matt. 18:23–35).

Millstone

One of several different types of stone implements used to grind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily, so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life (Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22). Women (Matt. 24:41) or servants (Exod. 11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Judg. 16:21), might be made to perform the mundane task.

Rain

In an agrarian society with an unpredictable climate, such as Israel, rainfall was of the utmost importance. Two rainy periods could be hoped for each year, in February/March and in October/November, and these seasons were critical in producing a good crop. Regular rainfall thus formed a significant part of God’s promise of a good and fruitful land for his people (Lev. 26:4). Solomon’s prayer acknowledges the conditional nature of this promise: rain would be withheld from a sinful nation but would be given to a forgiven and obedient people (1Kings 8:3536).

Rain could also be sent in judgment, most notably in the flood narratives, where God sent rain in order to destroy all living things on the face of the earth (Gen. 7:4), and in the exodus narrative, where rain accompanied hail and thunder in the seventh plague (Exod. 9:23).

Since rain is completely beyond human control, it naturally became a symbol of God’s sovereignty in both blessing and curse. A striking example of this is in 1Kings 17–18, when for three years the rains were withheld, until finally Elijah’s trust in God was vindicated above the prophets of Baal, and the rain followed. The effectiveness of Elijah’s prayers, first for drought and later for rain, is held up in the NT as an example for all believers (James 5:17–18).

Raven

An omnivorous member of the crow family, the raven is listed among the unclean birds in Lev. 11:15 because it is a scavenger that feeds on live prey and carrion. Despite this, the raven is used as an example of God’s care for his creation (Job 38:41; Ps. 147:9; Luke 12:24). God uses ravens to bring food to Elijah while he is hiding in the wilderness (1Kings 17:46). A raven is the first bird sent out by Noah at the end of the flood (Gen. 8:6–7). It does not return, presumably because it was able to find its own source of food. As part of God’s vengeance against Edom, ravens and other birds of prey will nest in the city (Isa. 34:11). Together with the vulture, the raven is used as a metaphor for vicious destruction (Prov. 30:17).

Rock

In the OT, the “rock” (sela’, tsur) is an image of inaccessibility and so of refuge from danger (Isa. 7:19), but rocks will not provide refuge on the day of God’s wrath (Isa. 2:10, 19, 21; cf. Rev. 6:1516). A great rock providing needed shade (Isa. 32:2) is a variation on this theme of protection. By extension, the image is applied to God himself in poetry (e.g., 2Sam. 22:2; Ps. 31:3, in both cases parallel with “fortress”). God as the “Rock” is the object of trust (2Sam. 22:3). This quality is an aspect of his incomparability: “And who is the Rock except our God?” (2Sam. 22:32).

Salt

A crystallized mineral compound, often harvested from the Dead Sea, used with food for flavor and preservation (Job 6:6) and medicinally rubbed on infants (Ezek. 16:4). Salt was to be added to the grain offering to represent the covenant (Lev. 2:13). Just as salt survives the sacrificial fires, so does the covenant survive the difficulties of life. In the first century, salt was known as a preservative, seasoning, and fertilizer. All these uses may be behind Jesus’ statement that his disciples were “the salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13), indicating that they were important for the welfare of the world.

Save

“Salvation” is the broadest term used to refer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about by humankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one of the central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis through Revelation.

In many places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued from physical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility of retribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, I pray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). The actions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:57; 47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray for salvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss. 17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).

Related to this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its king were saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus, whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to the Egyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army (Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history of Israel, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether through a judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2Kings 14:27), or even a shepherd boy (1Sam. 17:1–58).

But these examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritual component as well. God did not save his people from physical danger as an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to save them from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation from sin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does not provide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearest places that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa. 40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesied return are seen as the physical manifestation of the much more fundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address that far greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servant would once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

As in the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescued from physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being saved from various physical dangers, including execution (2Cor. 1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fierce storm, Jesus’ disciples cry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!” (Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospels and Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō, used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman with the hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road (Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke 8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō. The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgiving someone’s sins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost from their sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holistic salvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the new heaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensive descriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people from their sins.

Seal

In the biblical world, documents were sealed with clay or wax (1Kings 21:8; Job 38:14; Neh. 9:38; Jer. 32:10; Rev. 5:1). The integrity of the seal was assured by impressing an image into the soft substance, which would then harden and retain the unique image of the sender’s seal. The archaeological record attests this practice in the form of bullae (the impressions themselves, which survive long after the documents have disintegrated) as well as a large number of seals, which often were carved (Exod. 28:11; 39:6; Sir. 38:27; 45:11) into semiprecious stones or stone cylinders.

A person’s unique seal was closely identified with the owner and could be worn as a ring or pendant (see Gen. 38:18; Esther 8:8; Song 8:6). Besides documents, we have rec-ords of the sealing of caves (Matt. 27:66; cf. Dan. 6:17; 2Macc. 2:5) and bags (Job 14:17; Tob. 9:5). In apocalyptic literature, seals are used to conceal prophecies of the future (Dan. 12:4) and to mark humans as belonging to God (Rev. 7:38).

Servant

There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:111; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Sabbath Year, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).

Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1Tim. 1:10–11).

Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).

The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.

Sons of God

In the OT, heavenly beings or angels are sometimes referred to as “sons of God” (Gen. 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Pss. 82:6; 89:6). The more important background for the NT, however, is the use of the term with reference to the nation Israel and the messianic king from David’s line. Israel was God’s son by virtue of God’s unique calling, deliverance, and protection. Hosea 11:1 reads, “When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son.” Similar references to God as the father of his people appear throughout the OT (Exod. 4:22; Num. 11:12; Deut. 14:1; 32:5, 19; Isa. 43:6; 45:11; Jer. 3:4, 19; 31:9, 20; Hos. 2:1). The king from the line of David is referred to as the son of God by virtue of his special relationship to God and his representative role among the people. In the Davidic covenant, God promises David concerning his descendant, “I will be his father, and he will be my son” (2Sam. 7:14; cf. Pss. 2:7; 89:26). Later Judaism appears to have taken up these passages and identified the coming Messiah as the “son of God.”

Stars

The word “star” is used in the Bible to refer to any bright point of light in the night sky; no linguistic distinction is made between stars and planets (cf. 2Pet. 1:19; Rev. 2:28; 22:16).

Stars often are used to illustrate the scope of God’s promises (Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4; Deut. 10:22). They were used throughout the ancient Near East to represent the king, an association also evident in the OT (Num. 24:17; Isa. 14:12). Stars also were named, and some were objects of worship, a practice condemned in Israel (Amos 5:26; cf. Deut. 4:19). Stars were subject to study by foreign sages who sought to predict the future based on their observations, although their efficacy is denied (Isa. 47:13). Nonetheless, the arrival of the Messiah is heralded by a star in the service of its creator (Matt. 2:210). The falling (Rev. 6:13) and the darkening (Joel 2:10; 3:15) of stars are used to depict the coming of the day of the Lord in judgment.

Stone

Rocks and stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12; Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as a sign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a marker or memorial (Gen. 31:4650), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). A single rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen. 28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones (Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also be used to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb, such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus (Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).

Stone was used as a construction material, particularly for the temple (1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15; Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundation and for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26; Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22 refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becoming the cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf. Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh. 8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf. 2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai the Israelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed” stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). The phrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, since stone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf. Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); the term “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to an idol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 20:32).

Stones were used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown by hand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam. 17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone” refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typically functioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29; Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts 7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd (Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).

The phrases “precious stones” and “costly stones” refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor. 3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings 10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and for decoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones on the high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on his breastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12, 17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of precious stones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).

Rocks and stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as a rock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common (1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12), hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless (Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone” describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumbling stone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble (Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faith in Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).

Wadi

A ravine, gorge, valley, or streambed, sometimes steep, in an arid region that is dry except during rainy season, when it becomes susceptible to torrential, life-threatening flash flooding. Job compares his fickle friends to a wadi (Job 6:1520; NIV: “intermittent streams”).

Watch

A chronological division of the night. The term is derived from soldiers or others guarding, or “watching,” something during specified portions of the night. In the OT, there apparently were three watches or divisions in the night. Gideon and his men struck the Midianites at the beginning of the “middle watch” (Judg. 7:19). The Roman system had four divisions or watches in the night, and the Gospels report Jesus walking on the lake during the “fourth watch” (Matt. 14:25; Mark 6:48 ESV, NASB, NKJV). The term can also be used to refer to the guard placed on duty to guard something (Neh. 4:9).

Water

Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to its prevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. The cosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:67; cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in his cosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa. 66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen. 7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).

Water is also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associated with the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple are described as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel 3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowing from beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, where it brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8). The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is also illustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples. Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably the location of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple at Arad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, are located close to freshwater springs. The Gihon spring in the City of David may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf. Gen. 2:13).

This OT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regarding eternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to be the source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone who thirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17). This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up to eternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer (John 7:38–39).

Water is also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It is extensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT, the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of the believer (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26, 31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1Pet. 3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).

Finally, the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water (Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9; 4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Most important, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and they obey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).

Whirlwind

Elijah the prophet, at the end of his earthly career, was taken up alive into heaven in a whirlwind (2Kings 2:11). The Hebrew word there behind “whirlwind” (se’arah) also describes the atmospheric phenomenon of Ezek. 1:4, the “windstorm”—the early impression the prophet had of the flying chariot cherubim, above which God was enthroned. Thus, God communicates in a special way to these two prophets in the whirlwind/windstorm; in both cases, this encounter initiated a climactic event in their prophetic ministries: Elijah’s ended, and Ezekiel’s began. The same Hebrew word is used when God speaks to Job: “Then the Lord answered Job out of the whirlwind [se’arah]” (Job 38:1; 40:6 NRSV [NIV: “storm”]). God appears at times in wind and storm (e.g., Ps. 77:18; Isa. 66:15; Jer. 23:19; Nah. 1:3).

Wisdom

In the OT, wisdom is a characteristic of someone who attains a high degree of knowledge, technical skill, and experience in a particular domain. It refers to the ability that certain individuals have to use good judgment in running the affairs of state (Joseph in Gen. 41:33; David in 2Sam. 14:20; Solomon in 1Kings 3:9, 12, 28). It can also refer to the navigational skills that sailors use in maneuvering a ship through difficult waters (Ps. 107:27). Furthermore, wisdom includes the particular skills of an artisan (Exod. 31:6; 35:35; 1Chron. 22:15 16). In all these cases, wisdom involves the expertise that a person acquires to accomplish a particular task. In these instances “wisdom” is an ethically neutral term, or at least that dimension is not emphasized. The wise are those who have mastered a certain skill set in their field of expertise.

The uniqueness of the OT wisdom literature (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, etc.) is that it highlights the moral dimension of wisdom. Here “wisdom” refers to developing expertise in negotiating the complexities of life and managing those complexities in a morally responsible way that honors God and benefits both the community and the individual. Although it is difficult to pin down a concise definition, one can gain a better understanding of wisdom by investigating two important dimensions: wisdom as a worldview, and the traits of a person who is considered to be wise.

Who is wise? First, the wise are those involved in a lifelong process of character development. They manifest the virtues of righteousness, justice, and equity (Prov. 1:3; 2:9). The embodiment of these virtues culminates in the description of the woman of noble character at the conclusion of Proverbs (31:10–31). She exhibits self-control, patience, care, diligence, discipline, humility, generosity, honesty, and fear of the Lord (cf. James 3:13–18). She is the epitome of wisdom in its maturity and the model that all should emulate.

Second, the wise know the value of words and how to use them. They know when to speak, what to say, and how to say it (Job 29:21–22; Prov. 15:23; 25:11; Eccles. 3:7; 12:9–10). Wisdom and the wise place a premium on the power of words.

Third, the wise place great importance on relationships and on interaction with others. The wise person is the one who is open to the give-and-take of relationships (Prov. 27:5–6, 17, 19). Such a person develops the humility necessary to receive correction and criticism from others. Hearing criticism and changing wrong behavior are integral to wisdom (3:1–11). The wise appreciate insightful criticism because it helps them live life more productively (15:12). Wisdom is, ultimately, relational.

Fourth, the wise person develops the art of discernment (Prov. 1:2, 4–6). The sage is equipped with the ability to think critically. The very quality of wisdom itself invites the re-forming and rethinking of ideas. Sages are not interested in pat answers (26:4–5). Proverbs 16:1–9 throws a wrench in the conventional cogs of wisdom, claiming that although humans make their plans, God has the final say. Both Job and Ecclesiastes go head to head with conventional beliefs, probing more deeply into the complexities of life and the relationship between human and divine. No easy answers exist here. In contrast, fools do not use their mental faculties. They view wisdom as a commodity, a matter of learning some techniques, accepting certain beliefs, and memorizing a few proverbs (17:16). The wise, however, know that wisdom involves the art of critical thinking and interacting with others.

Fifth, and most fundamental, the wise person takes a God-centered focus toward life. Wisdom literature affirms, “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom” (Prov. 9:10; cf. Prov. 1:7; Job 28:28; Eccles. 12:13). That this is the beginning step in the process of gaining wisdom means that one who misses this step can proceed no further along the path to wisdom. The fear of the Lord is to wisdom as the letters of the alphabet are to forming words. The wise gain wisdom by being in relationship with the Lord (Prov. 3:5–8). The fear of the Lord is the beginning as well as the culmination of wisdom.

Wisdom is a highly prized quality, superior to might and power (Prov. 25:15; Eccles. 9:13–16), and one must diligently seek it (Prov. 2:1–5). Yet in the end, wisdom is a gift that only God can give (Prov. 2:6–8; 1Kings 3:9).

Works

The Bible has much to say about works, and an understanding of the topic is important because works play a role in most religions. In the most generic sense, “works” refers to the products or activities of human moral agents in the context of religious discussion. God’s works are frequently mentioned in Scripture, and they are always good. His works include creation (Gen. 2:23; Isa. 40:28; 42:5), sustenance of the earth (Ps. 104; Heb. 1:3), and redemption (Exod. 6:6; Ps. 111:9; Rom. 8:23). Human works, therefore, should be in alignment with God’s works, though obviously of a different sort. Works in the Bible usually reflect a moral polarity: good or evil, righteous or unrighteous, just or unjust. The context of the passage often determines the moral character of the works (e.g., Isa. 3:10–11; 2Cor. 11:15).

Important questions follow from the existence of works and their moral quality. Do good works merit God’s favor or please him? Can good works save at the time of God’s judgment? When people asked Jesus, “What must we do to do the works God requires?” he answered, “The work of God is this: to believe in the one he has sent” (John 6:28–29). Without faith it is impossible to please God (Heb. 11:6). The people from the OT commended in Heb. 11 did their works in the precondition of faith. Explicitly in the NT and often implicitly in the OT, faith is the condition for truly good works. God elects out of his mercy, not out of human works (Rom. 9:12, 16; Titus 3:5; cf. Rom. 11:2). Works not done in faith, even if considered “good” by human standards, are not commendable to God, since all humankind is under sin (Rom. 3:9) and no person is righteous or does good (Rom. 3:10–18; cf. Isa. 64:6). Works cannot save; salvation is a gift to be received by faith (Eph. 2:8–9; 2Tim. 1:9; cf. Rom. 4:2–6). Even works of the Mosaic law are not salvific (Rom. 3:20, 27–28; Gal. 2:16; 3:2; 5:4). Good works follow from faith (2Cor. 9:8; Eph. 2:10; 1Thess. 1:3; James 2:18, 22; cf. Acts 26:20). The works of those who have faith will be judged, but this judgment appears to be related to rewards, not salvation (Matt. 16:27; Rom. 2:6; 2Cor. 5:10; cf. Rom. 14:10; 1Cor. 3:13–15).

Wrath

The words “wrath” and “anger” are used in Bible translations for a variety of Hebrew and Greek words that refer to the disposition of someone (including God) toward persons (including oneself [Gen. 45:5]) or situations considered to be seriously displeasing. There may be degrees of anger (Zech. 1:15), and it may be accompanied by other sentiments such as distress (Gen. 45:5), hatred (Job 16:9), jealousy (Rom. 10:19), grief (Mark 3:5), and vengeance (Mic. 5:15).

Anger may be a proper response to sin or a sin-distorted world, as seen in, for example, Moses’ reaction to the golden calf (Exod. 32:19). Paul envisages an anger that does not necessarily involve sin (Eph. 4:26). Jesus is said to display anger at the willful stubbornness of his contemporaries (Mark 3:5), and his response to the mourning for Lazarus (John 11:33) might be rendered as “outrage,” an anger directed not so much at the mourners as at the ugliness of death, the consequence of sin, and with thoughts, perhaps, of his own impending death necessitated by this fallen world.

On the other hand, a display of anger may be the result of distorted perceptions or values (Gen. 4:56). A tendency to anger in oneself needs to be kept in check (James 1:19) and in others needs to be handled prudently (Prov. 15:1). Unchecked, anger may lead to violence and murder (Gen. 49:6). In several NT lists anger is associated with such other sinful behavior as quarreling, jealousy, selfishness, slander, malice, gossip, conceit, strife, idolatry, sorcery, and bitterness (2Cor. 12:20; Gal. 5:20; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3:8).

In Ps. 76:10 NLT (cf. ESV, NASB, NRSV) God is said to cause human anger to bring him praise (but see NIV, NET, where it is God’s wrath against human beings that brings him praise). Perhaps an instance of this is seen in Rom. 13:4–5, where the wrath of the civil authority serves to maintain justice under God.

Direct Matches

Animals

Animals play a significant role in both their literalpresence in the biblical texts and in their figurative uses. From thebeginning of creation, animals were placed under the dominion andcare of humanity. The Bible is careful to highlight that humankind isa creation superior to animals and also has a responsibility to seeto the betterment of the animal kingdom (Gen. 1:28–30; 2:19–20;Deut. 25:4). Furthermore, the biblical record goes to some lengths todescribe the proper means by which humans and animals ought tofunction in this world and what lines ought not to be crossed (Exod.22:19; Lev. 18:23; Deut. 27:21).

Regardingthe consumption of animals, Genesis suggests that such was not thecase before the flood (cf. 1:30 with 9:3). Scripture separatesanimals into those that are unclean, those that are clean, and thosethat are permissible to be used in offerings. Although the rationalefor such distinctions has been the subject of considerable discussionfor some time among scholars, the similarities between theirdivisions and those of humanity (Gentile, Israelite, and priest) maysuggest that God utilized the animal kingdom and Israel’sinteraction with it as an ongoing reminder of Israel’s greaterrole in the world of humanity. Other proposed rationales fordistinguishing between clean and unclean animals include protectionof health, abstinence from pagan practices, the symbolic nature ofthe animal’s activities for desirable or unpleasant qualities,and the regulations being simply a test of Israel’sfaithfulness. Whatever the specific reason, it is clear that Godintended the food laws to function more generally as a means ofseparating Israel from the world (Lev. 11).

Occasionallyin the prophetic literature and more regularly in apocalyptic texts,animals serve a symbolic purpose in terms of either their physicalcharacteristics or the demeanor that they exuded (e.g., Isa. 30:6).The lion early on became a symbol of strength and ferocity and so wasutilized as a picture of the tribe of Judah, Satan, powerful enemies,and even God (Gen. 49:9; Amos 3:8; Nah. 2:11–12; 1 Pet.5:8; Rev. 5:5). The lamb was alternately used as a symbol ofinnocence, sacrifice, and naiveté (Isa. 53:6–7; Jer.11:19; John 1:29; 1 Pet. 1:19; Rev. 5:6). Other animalssymbolically used in Scripture include the serpent (Gen. 49:17), thedog (Isa. 56:10; 2 Pet. 2:22), the deer (Isa. 35:6; Hab. 3:19),the antelope (Isa. 51:20), and the bull or cow (Ps. 22:12; Amos4:1–4). Daniel used grotesque portrayals of animals tosymbolize the corrupted nature of human kingdoms that were inopposition to the cause of God (Dan. 7).

Formany animals listed in Scripture there is some level of disagreementabout their identity. For instance, the second animal listed in Exod.25:5; 26:14 is alternatively identified as a badger, a goat, aporpoise, a manatee, and as a reference not to a specific animal atall but rather to a type of leather. The last of these seems mostlikely because of availability and also because the specific animalsidentified as an option are unclean and seem ill-suited for use inconnection with tabernacle instruments. Behemoth of Job 40:15 hasbeen identified as an elephant, a water buffalo, or a hippopotamus,though the word itself simply means beast or cattle. The animalidentified as a chameleon in Lev. 11:30 is sometimes simply viewed asa large lizard or perhaps even a mole. Finally, the debate continuesconcerning the identity of the beast that swallowed Jonah (1:17),with most translators preferring to go the more reserved route of“huge fish” rather than the more traditional “whale.”The identification of animals in antiquity, and even up to thenineteenth century, seems to have centered as much on appearance asactual anatomy. This may explain why names applied loosely tocreatures that had a similar general appearance in earlier periodsfound misapplication in some earlier translations.

Froman ecological standpoint, God’s care and concern for animals(including but not limited to proper care and humane means ofslaughter), as well as his expectations of humankind as stewards ofthe animal kingdom, leave the clear impression that the biblicalideal for God’s people includes investing energy inpreservation. Perceptions of humankind as having unrestrained freedomto do with animals as they see fit seem at odds with the moreholistic view of human beings as both lords over creation andcaretakers of that which actually belongs to someone else.

Arcturus

The KJV rendering of a constellation mentioned in Job 9:9;38:32 (NIV, NRSV, NASB: “Bear”). The constellation inquestion has been identified alternatively as Ursa Major and UrsaMinor (“the bear”) or as the Dipper (TEV). As with otherconstellations in the Bible, the purpose of its mention is toacknowledge the vast ordering of the universe at the hands of God andthe immensity of his power and sovereignty. See also Aldebaran.

Bar

(1) Usuallyoccurs in English Bibles as a translation of a Hebrew word (beriach)that can refer either to part of the frame of a structure such as thetabernacle (Exod. 26:28; 36:33 [NIV: “crossbar”]) or to abeam used to lock a gate in place (e.g., Judg. 16:3; Job 38:10; Ps.147:13). Gate bars were made sometimes of wood (Nah. 3:13) andsometimes of metal (1 Kings 4:13; Ps. 107:16; Isa. 45:2).(2) Baris Aramaic for “son.” When it appears in names, often ina hyphenated or combined form, it means “son of”; forexample, Acts 4:36 explains that “Barnabas” means “sonof encouragement.”

Beast

Animals play a significant role in both their literalpresence in the biblical texts and in their figurative uses. From thebeginning of creation, animals were placed under the dominion andcare of humanity. The Bible is careful to highlight that humankind isa creation superior to animals and also has a responsibility to seeto the betterment of the animal kingdom (Gen. 1:28–30; 2:19–20;Deut. 25:4). Furthermore, the biblical record goes to some lengths todescribe the proper means by which humans and animals ought tofunction in this world and what lines ought not to be crossed (Exod.22:19; Lev. 18:23; Deut. 27:21).

Regardingthe consumption of animals, Genesis suggests that such was not thecase before the flood (cf. 1:30 with 9:3). Scripture separatesanimals into those that are unclean, those that are clean, and thosethat are permissible to be used in offerings. Although the rationalefor such distinctions has been the subject of considerable discussionfor some time among scholars, the similarities between theirdivisions and those of humanity (Gentile, Israelite, and priest) maysuggest that God utilized the animal kingdom and Israel’sinteraction with it as an ongoing reminder of Israel’s greaterrole in the world of humanity. Other proposed rationales fordistinguishing between clean and unclean animals include protectionof health, abstinence from pagan practices, the symbolic nature ofthe animal’s activities for desirable or unpleasant qualities,and the regulations being simply a test of Israel’sfaithfulness. Whatever the specific reason, it is clear that Godintended the food laws to function more generally as a means ofseparating Israel from the world (Lev. 11).

Occasionallyin the prophetic literature and more regularly in apocalyptic texts,animals serve a symbolic purpose in terms of either their physicalcharacteristics or the demeanor that they exuded (e.g., Isa. 30:6).The lion early on became a symbol of strength and ferocity and so wasutilized as a picture of the tribe of Judah, Satan, powerful enemies,and even God (Gen. 49:9; Amos 3:8; Nah. 2:11–12; 1 Pet.5:8; Rev. 5:5). The lamb was alternately used as a symbol ofinnocence, sacrifice, and naiveté (Isa. 53:6–7; Jer.11:19; John 1:29; 1 Pet. 1:19; Rev. 5:6). Other animalssymbolically used in Scripture include the serpent (Gen. 49:17), thedog (Isa. 56:10; 2 Pet. 2:22), the deer (Isa. 35:6; Hab. 3:19),the antelope (Isa. 51:20), and the bull or cow (Ps. 22:12; Amos4:1–4). Daniel used grotesque portrayals of animals tosymbolize the corrupted nature of human kingdoms that were inopposition to the cause of God (Dan. 7).

Formany animals listed in Scripture there is some level of disagreementabout their identity. For instance, the second animal listed in Exod.25:5; 26:14 is alternatively identified as a badger, a goat, aporpoise, a manatee, and as a reference not to a specific animal atall but rather to a type of leather. The last of these seems mostlikely because of availability and also because the specific animalsidentified as an option are unclean and seem ill-suited for use inconnection with tabernacle instruments. Behemoth of Job 40:15 hasbeen identified as an elephant, a water buffalo, or a hippopotamus,though the word itself simply means beast or cattle. The animalidentified as a chameleon in Lev. 11:30 is sometimes simply viewed asa large lizard or perhaps even a mole. Finally, the debate continuesconcerning the identity of the beast that swallowed Jonah (1:17),with most translators preferring to go the more reserved route of“huge fish” rather than the more traditional “whale.”The identification of animals in antiquity, and even up to thenineteenth century, seems to have centered as much on appearance asactual anatomy. This may explain why names applied loosely tocreatures that had a similar general appearance in earlier periodsfound misapplication in some earlier translations.

Froman ecological standpoint, God’s care and concern for animals(including but not limited to proper care and humane means ofslaughter), as well as his expectations of humankind as stewards ofthe animal kingdom, leave the clear impression that the biblicalideal for God’s people includes investing energy inpreservation. Perceptions of humankind as having unrestrained freedomto do with animals as they see fit seem at odds with the moreholistic view of human beings as both lords over creation andcaretakers of that which actually belongs to someone else.

Behemoth

Found only in Job 40:15, “Behemoth” is atransliteration of the Hebrew plural word behemot (lit., “beasts”),meaning “the Beast” par excellence. The failure toidentify the creature with any known animal species is deliberate.Some scholars suggest that it is possibly the hippopotamus or theelephant, but such mundane alternatives domesticate what is meant tobe a mysterious, larger-than-life creature of fearsome strength,“which I [God] made along with you [Job].” Job complainedthat God had treated him like a monster who needed to be guarded(7:12). The poem implies that God can tame both Behemoth and Job.

Belt

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

Binding and Loosing

Binding can mean physically restraining a person or people(Judg. 15:13; 2 Kings 25:7; Job 16:8; Pss. 119:61; 149:8),mending, as with a wound (Isa. 61:1; Ezek. 34:16; Hos. 6:1), ortaking a legally constraining oath (1 Sam. 14:27–30; Neh.10:29; Jer. 50:5). The opposite of binding is loosing or settingfree, which can describe literally being freed from bonds (e.g., Acts16:26) or the release from something that is binding.

Thelaw, a binding covenant between Israel and God, is to be literallybound on one’s forehead as a reminder (Deut. 6:8; 11:18).Non-Israelites who wish to identify with the God of Israel can bindthemselves to his laws (Isa. 56:6). In Num. 30:6, 9, 13, an oathtaken by a young woman still in her father’s house will bebinding only if the father is not against it. If he is against it, itis not binding and she is loosed from it (30:5). This is the same inthe case of a married woman, whose approval has to come from thehusband. However, for widows or divorced women, all pledges they makeare binding since there are no men in their lives to void the pledges(30:9).

Whilecontracts were binding, some had time limits. For example, theseventh year and the fiftieth year (Jubilee) allowed for cancellationof such binding contracts as slavery or land ownership (Lev.25:10–54; 27:24).

Thebinding of Isaac (Gen. 22), traditionally known as the Akedah, hastheological significance for both Christians and Jews. It isinterpreted as a form of resurrection, a coming from the dead forIsaac after Yahweh had instructed his father, Abraham, to sacrificehim (Heb. 11:17–19). God inquires of Job whether he can “bindthe chains of the Pleiades” or “loosen Orion’sbelt” (Job 38:31).

Thebook of Proverbs encourages the wise to metaphorically bind love andfaithfulness around their necks (3:3) and their parents’commands and teachings to the heart (6:21) and the finger (7:3); italso talks of folly being bound up in the heart of a child (22:15),perhaps alluded to by Paul in Rom. 11:32 when he says that God hasbound all people to disobedience that he may have mercy on them.

Introducinghis ministry in Luke 4:18, Jesus quotes Isa. 61:1, which talks ofbinding up the brokenhearted, a reference to his healing ministry.Further, binding and loosing are found in Jesus’ commissioningof his disciples (Matt. 16:19; 18:18; cf. John 20:23), where it maybe referring to the binding of demons and loosing of demoniacs boundor oppressed by demons (cf. Mark 3:14–16; 6:7; Luke 13:6).Since Jesus has the power to bind and loose (John 8:36), he choosesto empower his followers to do the same. Binding Satan is the subjectof the ultimate eschatological battle in Jewish lore (T. Levi18:11–12) and becomes central in Christianity. Jesus encounterssatanic forces embodied in humans and looses such people from thechains of Satan (Mark 5:3; Luke 13:12, 16). Ultimately, Satan is tobe bound for a millennium and loosed only for eternal damnation (Rev.20:1–3).

Paulinvokes Jewish law about marriage by claiming that one is bound inmarriage only as long as one’s partner is alive (Rom. 7:2). Inthis way, Paul explains how Christians are dead to the law, becauseJesus has died on their behalf, thus setting them free from the law(Rom. 7:4–6; cf. Heb. 9:15). To the Corinthians also he talksof the binding nature of marriage but with a caveat: if the marriageis between a believer and a nonbeliever, and if the nonbelieverleaves, then the believer is not bound (1 Cor. 7). But for Paul,being set free from sin (Rom. 8:2) means being bound to God (6:22).

Birds

Over 350 species of birds have been recorded in the land ofmodern-day Israel. The OT employs thirty-five different words forbirds (both wild and domestic), but the identification of these wordswith known species has proved to be very difficult. Like other wordsfor animals, terminology for birds often is employed in personalnames (e.g., Jonah, Oreb, Zippor, Zipporah). There is significantevidence for fowling practices in ancient Israel, usually by means ofnets and snares (Pss. 124:7; 140:5; Prov. 6:5; 7:23; Lam. 3:52; Hos.7:12; Amos 3:5). Small birds and chickens are occasionally evendepicted on Iron Age II (1000–586 BC) seals and vesselsfrom sites such as el-Jib (Gibeon) and Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah).

Likeother animals in the Bible, birds are depicted as agents of God.Divine agency is especially evident in instances such as the ravensfeeding Elijah (1 Kings 17:4–6) and the dove bringing anolive leaf to Noah (Gen. 8:11). The Bible also employs bird-relatedimagery such as in descriptions of divine judgment (Prov. 30:17; Jer.12:9). Birds may also serve as ominous signs of impending judgment(Hos. 8:1). God’s “wings” can offer both healing(Mal. 4:2 KJV, RSV) and protection (Ruth 2:12; Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1;61:4; 63:7; 91:4). The metaphor of the soul or spirit as a bird isreferenced in the description of the Holy Spirit descending like adove (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32). The observationthat birds “do not sow or reap” is employed as an imageof worry-free living (Luke 12:24; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 147:9). Jesus’reference to “when the rooster crows” (Mark 13:35) is notstrictly literal but rather refers to a watch of the night: thequarter of the night after midnight.

Theprominence of sacrificial birds (especially doves and pigeons) inritual literature indicates that they were likely raised for suchpurposes in ancient Israel. All birds could be eaten except thoselisted as unclean in Lev. 11:13–19 (twenty species) and Deut.14:12–18 (twenty-one species). Generally speaking, birds ofprey and those that feed on carrion or fish were considered unclean.Birds often served as food for the poor (Matt. 10:29–31; Luke12:6–7). Poor people could offer birds as a substitute forexpensive livestock (Lev. 5:7; 12:8; 14:21–22; cf. Luke 2:24),while the poorest of the poor were permitted to bring grain (Lev.5:11). Finally, in one purgation ritual a live bird is used to carryaway impurities (Lev. 14:52–53; cf. 16:22).

Bridle

A bridle is gear that fits over an animal’s head;attached to the bridle is a bit, a metal mouthpiece that allows oneto control the animal. The terms “bridle” and “bit”are used metaphorically in both Testaments, demonstrating some mannerof control (Job 41:13; Ps. 32:9; James 1:26). For example, James usesthis metaphor to challenge believers about the difficulty andimportance of controlling their tongue (James 3:1–12).

Children of God

The Hebrew expression “sons of God” (often translated as “children of God” in contemporary usage) is an important biblical concept and is used to describe a range of referents.

In the OT, the term is used to refer to angels (e.g., Job 1:6). They are subordinate divine beings, carrying out God’s mission on earth (Job 2:1). Compared to them, Yahweh’s incomparability is asserted in divine council (Ps. 89:6; cf. Deut. 32:8 NIV mg.). They are called upon to praise Yahweh for his creation (Ps. 29:1). They shout for joy at God’s creation (Job 38:7). In Gen. 6:2 the term refers to beings that are apparently of divine origin and to be contrasted with the “daughters of men” in that same passage. The sin mentioned in this passage refers to the cohabitation of divine beings and humans. This union is one of the impetuses for the flood, an indication of how bad things had gotten. The “order” of creation (Gen. 1), where humans are meant to be fruitful with their own kind, is here transgressed. Hence, God introduces further disorder by bringing back the waters of chaos to flood the earth.

Israel as a covenant nation is called “my son, my firstborn” by Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Jer. 31:9; Hos. 11:1). As son, Israel is expected to give proper reverence and honor for his father (Mal. 1:6). Although only one of many metaphors for Israel in the OT, Israel’s status as son is important for understanding the movement of the book of Exodus. Israel is to be delivered from Egyptian rule because Israel is God’s son. If Pharaoh continues to mistreat Israel, God will call judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn, as he did in the plague of death and the Red Sea incident.

Sonship is not exclusive to Israel. The Gentiles are also included in the future of God’s program (Isa. 19:25; Zech. 14:16). Likewise, in the NT all humans are God’s children (Eph. 4:6). More often, though, the term refers to those who are in Christ. The bond is spiritual, and often the concept of adoption is used (John 1:12; Rom. 9:6; Gal. 3:26; 4:5–7; 1 John 5:1). See also Sons of God

Clothed

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

Clothes

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

Clothing

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

Club

Clubs were used for warfare and hunting (2 Sam. 23:21;Job 41:29). Isaiah describes the Assyrians as a club in the hand ofYahweh (Isa. 10:5; see also Jer. 51:20). Those who arrested Jesuscarried clubs (Matt. 26:47).

Cornerstone

An architecturally important stone, giving rise to its figurative uses. The architectural uses refer to either a capstone or a foundation stone. Long interlocking stones used to tie the corners of a building together for stability were topped off with a capstone, or “head of the corner” (1 Pet. 2:7 KJV, NRSV). The corner foundation stone was important for bearing weight and possibly for establishing the lines for the walls. The Canaanites who preceded Israel seemed to have made great ceremony over laying a foundation stone, possibly including human sacrifice. It has also been suggested that the term refers to the pivot stone. This important stone was a strong rock with a depression on top to hold a doorpost, which would pivot on this point to open and close. Frequently foundation stones were inscribed or covered valuables or symbolic items deposited at the building. Job 38:4–6 figuratively pictures God laying the earth’s foundation and cornerstone. References to a cornerstone in Ps. 118:22; Isa. 28:16; Zech. 10:4 are taken as messianic. Zechariah looks forward to the ruler from Judah of the messianic age. In Isaiah’s prophecy the corner foundation stone is of precious material and acts to ensure a true or square line. Like a good wall with aligned stones, the one who believes will not give way. Peter compares the church to believing, living stones built around Christ, the cornerstone (1 Pet. 2:4–6). Psalm 118 highlights an irony: a stone rejected early in the building process is chosen by God to be the corner capstone, a metaphor applied to Jesus six times in the NT (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; Eph. 2:20; 1 Pet. 2:7). See also Capstone.

Crib

A container or basin that holds the feed for domesticated farm animals such as cattle, sheep, or horses (Prov. 14:4; KJV: “crib”). Job speaks of a manger in relation to a wild ox, asking, “Will it stay by your manger at night?” (Job 39:9), implying that mangers are used for domesticated animals only. Isaiah laments Israel’s waywardness, unlike the donkey, which knows its “owner’s manger” (Isa. 1:3). For want of a room at the inn, Mary wrapped Jesus in cloths and placed him in a manger shortly after his birth (Luke 2:7). Nearby, shepherds were told by angels that Christ the Lord had been born in Bethlehem, and that the sign to them would be a baby wrapped in cloths lying in a manger (2:12). They journeyed to Bethlehem and found Jesus just as the angels had said (2:16).

Dart

A medium-range projectile weapon with a sharp metal point,similar to the long-range arrow. The dart was usually thrown (Job41:26) like the larger javelin. The figurative use of “flamingdarts” (NIV: “flaming arrows”) of Eph. 6:16suggests that they could also serve as incendiary weapons.

Day Star

In the OT, “morning star” may indicate a star(Job 3:9) or celestial beings in general; for example, “morningstars” is parallel to “angels” (lit., “sonsof God”; see NIV mg.) in Job 38:7. In a passage addressed tothe king of Babylon, Isa. 14:12–13 describes him as the“morning star [ESV, NRSV: “Day Star”], son of thedawn” who spoke presumptuously and fell from heaven. The KJVinstead translates the term as “Lucifer,” a name that hastraditionally been applied to Satan (see also Lucifer). NT imageryassociates the brilliant morning star with the dawn of the messianickingdom of David fulfilled in Jesus (2Pet. 1:19 [KJV: “daystar”]; cf. Num. 24:17; Isa. 60:1–3), promising themorning star to those who overcome (Rev. 2:28). In Rev. 22:16, Jesusidentifies himself as the “bright Morning Star.”

Doe

The doe symbolizes feminine fecundity and beauty (Prov. 5:19; Song 2:7) and the flourishing of the recipient with God’s protection and blessings (2Sam. 22:34; Hab. 3:19). The doe symbolizes the tribe of Naphtali in Gen. 49:21. The calving of does was viewed as something that occurred under the providence of God (Job 39:1; Jer. 14:5; and in some translations of Ps. 29:9 [e.g., NASB: “The voice of the Lord makes the deer to calve”], though the NIV and other versions translate an emended text). One psalm had an accompaniment (possibly a musical melody) called “The Doe of the Morning” (Ps. 22 superscription).

Donkey

Several words are used in the Bible to designate donkeys orasses, but they roughly point to two kinds: domestic and wild.

Fondof freedom (Job 39:5) and solitary places (Jer. 14:6), a wild donkeyis mentioned several times in the Bible. The Israelites’idolatry is compared to the lust of a wild donkey (Jer. 2:24). Themode of life of Ishmael and the desert dwellers is likened to that ofa wild donkey (Gen. 16:12; Job 24:5). Israel’s politicalalliance with Assyria is also likened to the wild donkey’swandering (Hos. 8:9). Such a derisive view is also found in Job11:12, where the impossibility of a fool being wise is compared tothe impossibility of the wild donkey being born a man.

Mostof the biblical references to donkeys are about domestic animals.People, regardless of their social class or gender, primarily usedthis animal for riding. Riding a donkey usually means peacefulpursuits (Gen. 42:26; 1Sam. 16:20), whereas riding a horsesignifies war. However, riding a donkey to enter a city carries theconnotation of a royal procession, as indicated in Solomon’sriding on David’s mule on the way to Gihon for anointing(1Kings 1:33, 44) as well as in other ancient Near Easterntexts, such as the Mari letters (c. eighteenth century BC). Againstthis background, the Gospel writers understand Jesus’ entryinto Jerusalem as the fulfillment of the prophecy about a messianicking in Zech. 9:9 (Matt. 21:1–11; John 12:12–16). (Seealso Colt; Mule.)

Donkeyswere also important agricultural resources, used for tilling fields(Isa. 30:24; 32:20) and carrying burdens (Gen. 45:23; Isa. 30:6).Although these animals are small, other physical characteristics(e.g., long, hollow, sharp-edged hoofs, great strength, littlethirst, fondness for prickly herbs) make them well suited for varioustasks in the arid hilly regions of western Asia and northeasternAfrica. Thus, they were highly valued as important assets (Gen.12:16; Deut. 5:21; Job 1:3).

Domesticdonkeys carry a variety of symbolic connotations. Proverbscharacterizes them as stubborn, paralleling the necessity ofdiscipline for fools with that of a bridle for a donkey (26:3).Isaiah uses their usual lack of freedom to portray the dramaticreversal in the time of restoration (32:20). Mosaic law forbids theyoking of a donkey with an ox in plowing (Deut. 22:10; cf. 2Cor.6:14). This prohibition may be intended to protect the weaker animalfrom being exhausted, but it may also be related to the generalpriestly prohibition of various types of mixtures. This conception ofuncleanness helps to explain the descriptions of the severity of thefamine in Samaria (2Kings 6:25), of the Israelites’spiritual adultery (Ezek. 23:20), and of Jehoiakim’s burial(Jer. 22:19).

Noteworthyis the use of donkeys as literary foils to their riders. For example,in the story of Balaam the prophet (Num. 22:21–30) thedescription of the donkey plays a crucial role in emphasizing theabsurdity of the prophet. The donkey is able to see the angel of theLord and refuses to move in fear, whereas the bribed prophet cannotsee him and forces the donkey to move on by beating it three times.The donkey also delivers the word of God, rebuking the prophet forhis disobedience to God. Although our modern conception of the donkeyas stupid may draw out a sharper contrast between the prophet and thedonkey, it is doubtful that ancient readers shared the sameconception. Rather, the contrast is made between the ordinaryanimal’s recognition of the angel and the supposedly inspiredprophet’s lack of discernment (cf. Isa. 1:3). Similarly, thedonkey’s faithfulness in the story of the old prophet of Bethel(1Kings 13) serves to highlight the prophet’sdisobedience. Although the donkey here is not as active as in theBalaam story, its survival from the lion’s attack is contrastedwith its owner’s miserable death. The portrayal of the donkeyas faithfully standing by the corpse of its owner is also comparedwith that of the prophet lying dead because of his disobedience toGod’s command.

Dress

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

Eagle

The word “eagle” may represent more than onespecies of eagle and vulture, particularly the griffon vulture. Abird of prey, the eagle is classed among the unclean birds in the OT(Lev. 11:13). The eagle was considered one of the marvels of theworld (Prov. 30:19), proverbial for its speed and power (Deut. 28:49;2Sam. 1:23; Ezek. 17:3), its inaccessibility among the highrocks (Job 39:27; Jer. 49:16), and its tutelage and protection of itsyoung (Deut. 32:11). The eagle serves to illustrate the renewedstrength of those whose hope is in God (Ps. 103:5; Isa. 40:31).

Inthe ancient world, the eagle was a symbol of transcendence over theearthly realm. In Egyptian and Mesopotamian iconography it is closelyassociated with royalty, serving to demonstrate that the king isinvited to participate in a dominion normally beyond the reach ofhuman capacity. There is a close association with warfare and withdivine protection and guarantee of success.

InExod. 19:4 God brings his royal-priestly people to himself at MountSinai “on eagles’ wings,” while in Deut. 32:10–11the eagle illustrates the divine protection of Israel. Because of itsproverbial attributes and associations, the eagle is included in anumber of visionary images (Ezek. 1:10; Dan. 7:4; Rev. 4:7; 8:13).

Earth

The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).

Heavenand Earth

Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.

Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.

TheTheology of Land

Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).

Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).

Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.

Inheritance

Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).

Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.

Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).

Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).

Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).

Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).

Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).

Eating

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Eyelids of the Morning

In Job 41:18 this phrase is the KJV rendering of the Hebrew’ap’appe shakhar, describing Leviathan’s eyes (NIV:“rays of dawn”; NRSV: “eyelids of the dawn”).

Fawn

A young animal or young deer (Job 39:1; Jer. 14:5). The doe was known for her care of her fawns.

Fire

Human Uses and Metaphors

Fire is a basic necessity for various human activities such as cooking (Exod. 12:8; Isa. 44:15–16, 19; John 21:9), warming (Isa. 44:16; Jer. 36:22; John 18:18), lighting (Isa. 50:11), manufacturing (Exod. 32:24), and refining metals (Num. 31:22–23). Fire is also an important means of maintaining the purity of God’s people, used to punish sinners (the sexually immoral [Lev. 20:14; 21:9; cf. Gen. 38:24] and the disobedient [Josh. 7:25; cf. 2Kings 23:16]) and to destroy idols (Exod. 32:20; Deut. 7:5, 25; 2Kings 10:26), chariots (Josh. 11:6, 9), and the cities of Canaan (Josh. 6:24; 8:19; 11:11; Judg. 18:27). As an essential means of worship, fire is used to burn sacrificial animals (Gen. 8:20; Exod. 29:18; Lev. 1:9; 3:3; 9:10, 13–14, 20) and grain offerings (Lev. 2:2, 9; 9:17).

The Mosaic law has several regulations concerning fire. Regarded as work, starting a fire is forbidden on the Sabbath (Exod. 35:3). It is the responsibility of the priests to keep the fire burning on the altar (Lev. 6:9, 12–13). The use of an “unauthorized fire” for sacrifice is forbidden (note Nadab and Abihu’s death [Lev. 10:1–2; cf. Num. 3:4; 26:61; 1Chron. 24:2]). Also, contrary to the Canaanite religious custom, burning children is forbidden (Deut. 18:10), though the Israelites failed to keep this command and elicited God’s judgment (2Kings 16:3; 17:17; 21:6; Jer. 7:31; 32:35; note Josiah’s ban in 2Kings 23:10).

As a metaphor, fire also signifies human anger (Ps. 39:3), wickedness (Isa. 9:18), self-reliance (Isa. 50:11), evil planning (Hos. 7:6–7), lust (Prov. 6:27–28), evil speech or tongue (Prov. 16:27; James 3:5–6), and, paradoxically, kindness to an enemy (Prov. 25:22; Rom. 12:20).

Divine Uses and Metaphors

In the Bible, God is described as the ruler of fire (Ps. 104:4; cf. 1Kings 18). Positively, God sends fire to signify his acceptance of worship (Lev. 9:24; Judg. 13:19–20; 1Kings 18:38; 2Chron. 7:1–3; cf. Luke 9:54). God also purifies his people by fire in order to provide them with abundance (Ps. 66:12), to cleanse them of their sins (Isa. 6:6–7), to refine them into the true remnant (Zech. 13:9), to restore true worship (Mal. 3:2–3), to bring forth genuine faith (1Cor. 3:13, 15; 1Pet. 1:7), and to give Christians a true joy of participating in Christ’s suffering (1Pet. 4:12). God also promises to make his people like a firepot and a flaming torch that will burn the surrounding enemies (Zech. 12:6). Negatively, God uses fire to punish the wicked and disobedient (Gen. 19:24; Exod. 9:23; Num. 11:1; 16:35; 2Kings 1:10, 12; Isa. 29:6; 34:9–10; 66:24; Ezek. 38:22; 39:6; Rev. 20:9). God is a farmer burning unfruitful trees (John 15:2, 6; cf. Matt. 3:10; 7:19; 13:40) and “thorns and briers” (Isa. 10:17). The eternal fire of hell is the place where God’s final judgment will be executed (Matt. 5:22; 25:41; Mark 9:45–49; Jude 1:7; note the “lake of fire” in Rev. 20:14–15; cf. 14:10; 21:8).

Fire is also a symbol used to image the indescribable God. It symbolizes God’s presence: a smoking firepot with a flaming torch (Gen. 15:17), the burning bush (Exod. 3:2; cf. Elijah’s expectation [1Kings 19:12]), the pillars of fire and smoke (Exod. 13:21–22; Num. 14:14), the smoke on Mount Sinai and in the tabernacle and the temple (Exod. 19:19; Num. 9:15–16; Deut. 4:11–12; Isa. 6:4). Fire marks God’s protection: the “horses and chariots of fire” (2Kings 6:17; cf. 2:11), the “wall of fire” (Zech. 2:5). Fire also represents God’s glory: God’s throne (Dan. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 1:4, 13; 10:2, 6–7), God’s form (Ezek. 1:27), the seven spirits of God before the throne (Rev. 4:5). God in his holy wrath is also likened to a burning fire (Pss. 79:5; 89:46; Isa. 5:24; 33:14; Jer. 15:14; Ezek. 21:31; 22:21; Hos. 8:5; note the expression “consuming fire” [Deut. 4:24; Isa. 33:14; Heb. 12:29]) and even to a fiery monster (Ps. 18:8; Isa. 30:33; 65:5; cf. Job 41:19–21). Fire is an important element in the description of the day of the Lord (Joel 2:3; cf. 2Pet. 3:12). God’s words in the prophet’s mouth are likened to a fire (Jer. 5:14; 20:9; 23:29).

Fire is also used to speak of Jesus. John the Baptist refers to Jesus’ baptism as one with the Holy Spirit and fire (Matt. 3:11). Jesus identifies the purpose of his coming as casting fire on earth (Luke 12:49). The returning Jesus is portrayed as coming in “blazing fire” (2Thess. 1:7), and the eyes of the glorified Christ are likened to “blazing fire” (Rev. 1:14; 2:18; cf. “flaming torches” in Dan. 10:6). In Acts 2:3 the Holy Spirit is portrayed as the “tongues of fire.”

Fish

Fish comprise a part of God’s created order (Gen.1:26), given for humankind to rule (Gen. 1:28) and to eat, thoughsome were considered unclean (those with no fins or scales [Lev.11:9–12]). Fish comprised a meaningful part of the ancientIsraelites’ diet for much of their history. They ate fishduring their time in Egypt and longed for it in the wilderness (Num.11:5). Once in Canaan, they could obtain fish from the Sea ofGalilee, the Jordan River, and the Mediterranean Sea. Jerusalem evenhad a gate called the “Fish Gate” (Neh. 3:3; Zeph. 1:10),perhaps named for a fish market located near it inside the city.Nehemiah notes that men from the coastal city of Tyre imported fishto sell in Jerusalem (Neh. 13:16). Fish brought from such a distanceprobably had been preserved, perhaps by salting, smoking, or drying.The Gospels contain many references to fishing, since Jesusministered near the Sea of Galilee and had fishermen among hisfollowers.

Giventhe importance of fish and fishing, it is perhaps surprising that theBible nowhere names specific types of fish. One simply reads that a“huge fish” swallowed Jonah (Jon. 1:17), or that Jesusmultiplied “small fish” to feed a multitude (Mark 8:7–9).These small fish likely were sardines, caught in large quantities inthe Sea of Galilee and preserved by salting. Other common native fishincluded a pan fish, the tilapia (today’s “St.Peter’sfish” from the story in Matt. 17:24–27); a type of carp,the barbel; and the largest native fish, the catfish, forbidden toobservant Jews because of its lack of scales.

Bycontrast, in both Testaments one can find clear indications of howfish were caught. Large sea creatures might be speared or harpooned(Job 41:7), but usually fishermen used hook and line or one ofseveral different types of nets (Isa. 19:8; Hab. 1:15). Jesus sentPeter out to fish with hook and line (Matt. 17:27). Peter and hisbrother Andrew also used a casting net (Matt. 4:18–20), acircular net up to twenty-five feet in diameter cast from shore or aboat. The net spread like a parachute and sank rapidly, trapping fishunderneath. A system of cords drew the net together as it was pulledback in. Jesus’ disciples caught 153 fish with such a net (John21:6–11). Professional fishermen also used a dragnet, the mostcommon type of net used in antiquity (see Dragnet). Finally, theyalso used a trammel net, a standing net often spread between twoboats. The trammel net was made of up to five sections, each aboutone hundred feet long. This net had three layers, two finer-meshedlayers on either side of a larger-meshed, central layer. When fishswam into the net, they pushed one of the finer layers into theheavier layer and became entangled when they turned and tried toescape. The fishermen then pulled in the nets, disentangled the fish,and repeated the process, typically ten to fifteen times during anight’s work. The story in Luke 5:1–11 reflects the useof trammel nets, with fishermen in two boats working hard through thenight. Ancient commercial fishermen usually had to work at nightbecause the fish could see the threads of their nets during the day.

Fishhook

Fishhooks are mentioned rarely in the Bible, and fishing withnets was more common in Palestine than fishing with hooks. Althoughdifferent Hebrew words are used, “fishhook” is found inJob 41:1, Amos 4:2 (cf. Job 41:2; Isa. 19:8). The lone NT referenceto a fishhook occurs in Matt. 17:27, where the Greek word for“fishhook” (ankistron) is obscured by the NIV’sphrase “throw out your line,” which is more literallyrendered as “cast a fishhook” (cf. NRSV).

Fishing

Fish comprise a part of God’s created order (Gen.1:26), given for humankind to rule (Gen. 1:28) and to eat, thoughsome were considered unclean (those with no fins or scales [Lev.11:9–12]). Fish comprised a meaningful part of the ancientIsraelites’ diet for much of their history. They ate fishduring their time in Egypt and longed for it in the wilderness (Num.11:5). Once in Canaan, they could obtain fish from the Sea ofGalilee, the Jordan River, and the Mediterranean Sea. Jerusalem evenhad a gate called the “Fish Gate” (Neh. 3:3; Zeph. 1:10),perhaps named for a fish market located near it inside the city.Nehemiah notes that men from the coastal city of Tyre imported fishto sell in Jerusalem (Neh. 13:16). Fish brought from such a distanceprobably had been preserved, perhaps by salting, smoking, or drying.The Gospels contain many references to fishing, since Jesusministered near the Sea of Galilee and had fishermen among hisfollowers.

Giventhe importance of fish and fishing, it is perhaps surprising that theBible nowhere names specific types of fish. One simply reads that a“huge fish” swallowed Jonah (Jon. 1:17), or that Jesusmultiplied “small fish” to feed a multitude (Mark 8:7–9).These small fish likely were sardines, caught in large quantities inthe Sea of Galilee and preserved by salting. Other common native fishincluded a pan fish, the tilapia (today’s “St.Peter’sfish” from the story in Matt. 17:24–27); a type of carp,the barbel; and the largest native fish, the catfish, forbidden toobservant Jews because of its lack of scales.

Bycontrast, in both Testaments one can find clear indications of howfish were caught. Large sea creatures might be speared or harpooned(Job 41:7), but usually fishermen used hook and line or one ofseveral different types of nets (Isa. 19:8; Hab. 1:15). Jesus sentPeter out to fish with hook and line (Matt. 17:27). Peter and hisbrother Andrew also used a casting net (Matt. 4:18–20), acircular net up to twenty-five feet in diameter cast from shore or aboat. The net spread like a parachute and sank rapidly, trapping fishunderneath. A system of cords drew the net together as it was pulledback in. Jesus’ disciples caught 153 fish with such a net (John21:6–11). Professional fishermen also used a dragnet, the mostcommon type of net used in antiquity (see Dragnet). Finally, theyalso used a trammel net, a standing net often spread between twoboats. The trammel net was made of up to five sections, each aboutone hundred feet long. This net had three layers, two finer-meshedlayers on either side of a larger-meshed, central layer. When fishswam into the net, they pushed one of the finer layers into theheavier layer and became entangled when they turned and tried toescape. The fishermen then pulled in the nets, disentangled the fish,and repeated the process, typically ten to fifteen times during anight’s work. The story in Luke 5:1–11 reflects the useof trammel nets, with fishermen in two boats working hard through thenight. Ancient commercial fishermen usually had to work at nightbecause the fish could see the threads of their nets during the day.

Flood

Recounted in Gen. 6:5–9:19, the flood is the event whereby God destroys all creatures except for Noah, his family, and a gathering of animals. The account is highly literary and God-centered. It opens and closes with Noah’s three sons (6:10; 9:18–19). Noah’s obedience is highlighted (7:5, 9, 16). God is the protagonist, and Noah remains silent.

Terminology. The Hebrew word for “flood” is mabbul, and the Greek word is kataklysmos. Outside of the Gen. 6–9 narrative and references to the flood in Gen. 10:1, 32; 11:10, mabbul occurs only in Ps. 29:10, probably a reference to the primordial water stored above the firmament in jars (cf. Gen. 1:7; 7:11). The LXX translates mabbul with kataklysmos in Sir. 40:10; 44:17–18; 4 Macc. 15:31. Hebrew Sirach and the Aramaic Genesis Apocryphon also use mabbul for the flood (Sir. 44:17; 1QapGenar 12:9–10). All four uses of kataklysmos in the NT refer to the flood (Matt. 24:38–39; Luke 17:27; 2Pet. 2:5).

The flood narrative. In Gen. 6:5–22, God observes the grand scale of human wickedness, determines to destroy all life, and selects righteous Noah to build an ark. God’s “seeing” is judicial investigation (6:5, 13) that counters the sons of God who “saw” (6:2), just as his pained heart counters humankind’s wicked heart (6:5–6). God’s second statement, “I will wipe from the face of the earth the human race” (6:7), is his judicial sentence (cf. 3:15–19), affecting all life in the domain of human care (1:28; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 36:6; Hos. 4:3; Joel 1:20).

The earth’s corruption and violence (Gen. 6:12–13) reflect a spectrum of evil that has despoiled a creation that was once “very good” (1:31; cf. 6:17; 7:21; 8:17; 9:11). God’s destruction responds to the moral corruption of the earth. The ark is a rectangular vessel designed for floating rather than sailing (6:14–15). Noah builds a microcosm of the earth to save its life. The boat’s windowlike openings and three decks reflect the cosmology of Gen. 1 (heavens, water, earth [cf. 6:16]). God makes a promise that Noah will survive and receive a covenant from God (6:18), fulfilled in the Noahic covenant following the flood (9:9, 11, 14–17).

Genesis 7:1–24 recounts the boarding of the ark and then the rising waters. Two numbering systems are used by the narrator in the flood narrative: one for dates of Noah’s age (day, month, year) and one for periods between flood stages. Both systems number between 365 and 370 days. The flood is portrayed as a reversal of the second and third days of creation. Watery boundaries that God once separated collapse (cf. 1:6–10). The rising flood is described in three phases: rising and lifting the ark (7:17), increasing greatly and floating the ark on the surface (7:18), and covering all the high mountains (7:19). Total destruction is amplified by reversing the order of creation—people, animals, birds (7:23)—with “all/every” occurring repeatedly in 7:21–23.

Genesis 8:1–22 recounts the disembarking and Noah’s sacrifice. Genesis 8:1 is the structural and theological center, with God fulfilling (=“remember”) his covenant promise for Noah’s safety. The ark rests on one mountain within the range in eastern Turkey (Kurdistan). The earth’s drying occurs as a process (8:3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 14), and echoes of creation reappear (e.g., “wind” [8:1; cf. 1:2]). Although the old curse is not lifted (cf. 5:29), God promises not to add to it (8:21). The flood has not reformed the human heart; it has only stopped the violence. God’s oath of restoration reaffirms the seamless rhythm of seasons that comprise a full year (8:22).

Genesis 9:1–19 recounts the restoration of world order. Since murder was part of the antediluvian violence (6:11, 13), God’s law recalibrates earthly morality (9:5). God’s second postdiluvian speech encodes his plan for the broader preservation of creation (9:8–17). “My rainbow” is God’s confirming sign (9:13). The meteorological phenomenon of the storm is now harnessed as an image of peace. The cosmic warrior “hangs up” his bow in divine disarmament. Humankind now shares the responsibility of justice with God, illustrated in Noah’s first speech of cursing and blessing (9:20–27).

Ancient Near Eastern parallels. Without literary dependence on the biblical story, parallels to the biblical account exist in the Akkadian Atrahasis Epic, Gilgamesh TabletXI, and the Sumerian King List. The exact relationship between the biblical account and these Near Eastern accounts is a debated subject. Perhaps they are variants of a similar story based on the same historical event.

Foundation

Perhaps the most discussed foundation in the Bible is that ofthe temple. Solomon’s temple foundation was made from choicestones (1Kings 5:17; 7:9), was laid “in the fourth year,in the month of Ziv” (1Kings 6:37), and was “sixtycubits long and twenty cubits wide” (2Chron. 3:3). Thelaying of the foundation for the second temple by Zerubbabel (Zech.4:9), on “the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month” (Hag.2:18), was accompanied by mixed emotions. Some were disappointed withits meager stature in comparison to the earlier one, while otherssimply rejoiced for the restoration of the temple (Ezra 3:3–12).

Godis said to have set his “foundation” on the holy mountain(Ps. 87:1), and the “Foundation Gate” is referenced in2Chron. 23:5 in relation to the temple. The earth is said to beset on a foundation (Job 38:4) whose cornerstone (’eben pinnah)was laid by God (38:6). The earth itself serves as the foundation ofGod’s dwelling, which is in the heavens (Amos 9:6; Zech. 12:1).

Figuratively,justice and righteousness are the foundation of God’s throne(Pss. 87:1; 89:14; 97:2), while divine judgment may be described asremoval of a foundation (Jer. 51:26). Isaiah’s reference to thelaying of a foundation stone in Zion (Isa. 28:16; 33:6) attainsmessianic fulfillment for the NT authors in the person of Jesus(1Pet. 2:6; 5:10), who, in accordance with Zech. 10:4, is thecornerstone from Judah.

Layinga firm foundation is NT imagery for preaching or accepting thegospel. In the parables of Jesus a firm foundation (themelios), laidon rock rather than sand, is symbolic of wisdom and correct faith.Catastrophic destruction results from having the foundation set inthe wrong place (Matt. 7:25; Luke 6:48–49; 14:29). “Foundation”language is heavily employed by Paul (Rom. 15:20; 1Cor.3:10–12), as well as by the author of Hebrews (6:1), inreference to the gospel. In a slightly different interpretation,apostles and prophets are described as the foundation of the church,with Jesus as the cornerstone (Eph. 2:20). Acts of goodness arecommended as the laying down of a foundation for the world to come(1Tim. 6:19; 2Tim. 2:19), while the book of Revelationdescribes a heavenly city whose foundation is built with layers ofprecious stones (Rev. 21:19).

Furrow

A narrow trench dug in the ground, often by a plow, toprepare the ground for planting. In ancient Palestine a furrow wasmade by an animal-drawn wooden plow, or later, with an iron-tippedwooden plow. For example, in Job 39:9–10 God rhetorically asksJob whether he can control a wild ox in order to make a furrow. Afurrow can also be used as an image of the infliction of oppressionand pain (Ps. 129:3).

Garments

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

Habergeon

A Middle English term for a breastplate, body armor, or acoat of mail. The KJV uses the term five times to translate threedifferent Hebrew words. In 2Chron. 26:14; Neh. 4:16 the Hebrewterm shiryon is variously translated in modern versions as“breastplates,” “body armor,” “armor,”“coats of armor,” and “coats of mail.” Thesecond term, shiryah, in Job 41:26 is recognized today not as bodyarmor but as an offensive weapon, a “javelin” (NIV, NLT,NASB, RSV, NRSV), “lance” (JPS), “arrow”(HCSB), or “dart” (NET). The meaning of the third term,takhra’, in Exod. 28:32; 39:23 is debated, and it may refer toa collar of some kind (NIV: “collar”; NLT: “wovencollar”), an “opening in a garment” (RSV; ESV), ora “coat of mail” (NASB; NRSV).

Hail

(1)Aform of precipitation consisting of balls of ice or compact snow. Ofthe nearly thirty occurrences of “hail” in the OT, twentyrefer to hail as God’s weapon used against Egypt. The seventhexodus plague is a theophanic hailstorm, causing death for the firsttime (Exod. 9:18–33; cf. Pss. 78:47–48; 105:32). Hail ispart of the weaponry of God as divine warrior (Ps. 18:12). God keeps“stockpiles” of hail for battle (Job 38:22–23; cf.Rev. 8:7; 16:21). Hail can both defend and punish Israel (Josh.10:11; Isa. 28:2) but also glorify God (Ps. 148:8). (2)Aword of greeting (Matt. 27:29; Mark 15:18; John 19:3) or a verbmeaning “to greet or summon” (1 Sam. 14:12 ESV, NRSV,NASB). See also Greeting.

Harness

The term “harness” occurs three times as a verbin the context of restraints for oxen and horses (Job 39:10; Jer.46:4; Mic. 1:13) and once for the human tongue (Ps. 50:19). In theKJV the term is also used as a synonym for armor (1Kings 20:11;22:34; 2Chron. 9:24; 18:33).

Harpoon

Found only in Job 41:7, “harpoon” refers to thebarb or spear that pierces the skin of the powerful Leviathan(perhaps a crocodile or some mythical creature). The term “harpoons”parallels “fishing spears” in the second half of theverse.

Harrow

An agricultural implement designed to break up dirt clods andsoften soil before the sowing of seed or to cover seeds after theyhave been sown. Biblical references are to the object itself (2Sam.12:31; 1Chron. 20:3; NIV: “iron picks”) as well asto the verb “harrowing,” meaning the use of a harrow in afield (Job 39:10; Isa. 28:24; Hos. 10:11 NRSV).

Hawk

Hawks, like other birds of prey, are unclean (Lev. 11:16;Deut. 14:15). Numerous species of hawk and falcon exist in Israel,some being migrants (Job 39:26). It is uncertain which Hebrew wordrefers to which.

Heating

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Hind

A female deer. This term is usually used poetically,primarily in the KJV and RSV (NIV: “doe” or “deer”).The hind (or doe) can indicate speed and stability (Gen. 49:21;2Sam. 22:34; Ps. 18:33; Hab. 3:19), love and gentleness (Prov.5:19), or the mysterious workings of God (Job 39:1). See also Deer;Doe.

Hippopotamus

The hippopotamus has been suggested as the probable meaningfor the Hebrew word behemot in Job 40:15. Elsewhere, the same word isthe plural form of the word behemah, meaning “animals, cattle”(e.g., Job 12:7; 35:11). In 40:15 the term seems to refer to aparticular animal. The precise meaning in that verse is uncertainbeyond what can be discerned from context: it was large andapparently herbivorous. Although many modern translations leave theHebrew untranslated (NIV, NRSV: “Behemoth”), theirmarginal notes often suggest that the word may refer to thehippopotamus, the buffalo, or the elephant.

Hoarfrost

The KJV translates the Hebrew word kepor as “hoarfrost”and “hoary frost,” referring to its grayish white color(Exod. 16:14; Job 38:29; Ps. 147:16 [NIV: “frost”]).

Ice

In the subtropical climate of Israel, ice inspired both fearand wonder. When God hurls bits of ice from heaven (i.e., hail), thepsalmist asks, “Who can withstand his icy blast?” (Ps.147:17), and the Hebrew term qerakh, also translated as “cold”or “frost,” is associated with the discomfort ofnighttime exposure (Gen. 31:40; Jer. 36:30). However, the term isalso used to describe the sparkling beauty of the expanse above theliving creatures in Ezekiel’s vision of God (Ezek. 1:22). Likeother meteorological occurrences, such as rain (Jer. 14:22) and wind(Amos 4:13), ice is considered the work of God (Job 37:10; 38:29).

Iron

(1)Sometimestransliterated “Yiron” (NASB, RSV, TEV, NET), “Iron”is the name of a town in the tribal inheritance of Naphtali (Josh.19:38). It is likely to be identified with the modern city of Yaroun,on the border between Israel and Lebanon.

(2)Amalleable metal derived from oxide ores that can be worked intowrought iron and steel. The earliest use of iron dates to the latefourth millennium BC. Old Kingdom Egyptian refers to iron as the“metal of heaven,” probably because the earliest piecesof iron were derived from meteoric iron. Small quantities of smeltedterrestrial iron have been found from the third millennium BC inEgypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. Due to technological advancementsand economic factors, iron gradually supplanted bronze as the mainutilitarian metal in the Levant by the Iron Age (1200–586BC).

Ironcould be mined or found on the surface (Deut. 8:9), but it had to beheated and hammered to remove its impurities. Wrought iron was softerthan hardened bronze, but through carburization, tempering, andquenching, iron became stronger and could hold an edge better thanbronze. Since ancient furnaces could not get hot enough to liquefyiron, it could not be cast into molds.

TheBible makes several general references to the mining, smelting, anduse of iron (Job 28:1; Isa. 44:12; Ezek. 22:20; Sir. 38:28). Genesisattributes the beginning of ironworking and other crafts to thelegendary descendants of Cain (Gen. 4:22). The shift in dominancefrom bronze to iron in the late second millennium BC may have beendue either to an international shortage of copper or a more localizedshortage of the wood required for the fuel-intensive production ofbronze. In Bible times, iron was forged (Isa. 44:12) rather thancast, as the high temperatures necessary to melt iron could not beachieved before the modern industrial age. Biblical references toiron furnaces pertain to smelting (Ezek. 22:20). While one passagedescribes the richness of the land of Canaan where, among otherthings, “rocks are iron” (Deut. 8:9), other passagesassociate ironworking with Egypt (Deut. 4:20; 1Kings 8:51; Jer.11:4) or Mesopotamia (Jer. 15:12). The Israelites perhaps lacked theskills to work in iron, as is suggested by the facts that ironworkershad to be brought into the country (2Chron. 2:14) and at onepoint the Israelites were dependent on a Philistine monopoly onblacksmithing (1Sam. 13:21).

Ironwas used widely to make many different types of objects, includingaxes (Deut. 19:5; 2Sam. 12:31; 2Kings 6:5), tools fordressing stone (though this is prohibited for the making of altars[Deut. 27:5; Josh. 8:31]) and for engraving stone (Job 19:24; Jer.17:1), yokes (Deut. 28:48; Jer. 28:13), shackles or chains (Pss.105:18; 107:10; 149:8), pans (Ezek. 4:3), sharpening tools (Prov.27:17; Eccles. 10:10), weapons (Num. 35:16; Job 20:24; Ps. 2:9), gateor door bolts (Deut. 33:25; Ps. 107:16), nails (1Chron. 22:3),chariots (referring only to a part of the axle assembly rather thanthe entire vehicle [Josh. 17:16; Judg. 1:19]), otherwise unspecifiedvessels or implements (Josh. 6:19), and agricultural implements(1Chron. 20:3; Amos 1:3 [archaeologists have also found plowpoints and other iron tools]). Amos 1:3 may also refer to the use ofiron tools as instruments of torture in wartime. Among the uses ofiron that may have been considered unusual for the time were for abed frame (Deut. 3:11) and for horns (1Kings 22:11).

Ironwas valuable enough to be listed in lists of plunder and treasure,alongside gold and silver (Num. 31:22; Josh. 6:19; 1Chron.22:14). It was taken from Jericho and dedicated to God’streasury (Josh. 6:24). David collected large quantities of iron toconstruct the temple; however, none of the stones for the temple oraltar were cut with iron tools on-site (1Kings 6:7). Iron wasan internationally traded commodity (Ezek. 27:19). It was lessvaluable than gold, silver, and bronze (1Chron. 29:7; Isa.60:17; Dan. 2:33–35) but more valuable than lead and tin (Ezek.22:20; 27:12).

Ironwas a symbol of superlative strength (Job 40:18) and, in the moralrealm, of stubbornness or rebelliousness (Isa. 48:4). The fierysmelting process represented testing, oppression, wrath, suffering,and drought (Lev. 26:19; Deut. 4:20; 1Kings 8:51; Jer. 11:4;Ezek. 22:18–20). In contrast to untarnished gold, the corrosiveoxidation of iron symbolized corruption (Jer. 6:28).

Jaw

Human and animal jawbones are employed both figuratively andliterally. At Ramath Lehi (“Jawbone Hill”), Samson uses afresh donkey jawbone to slay a Philistine contingent and make theminto “donkeys”/“heaps” (Judg. 15:15–17;see NIV footnote). Both fishhooks and bits are set in jaws (Job 41:2;Ezek. 29:4; 38:4; Isa. 30:28), and enemies are struck on the jaw (Ps.3:7). Elihu sees Job’s distress as God’s wooing him from“the jaws of distress” (Job 36:16), and Agur speaks ofjaws “set with knives” to devour the poor (Prov. 30:14).

Lance

A lance (NIV) or lancet (KJV) is a sharp-pointed object witha shaft. While lances normally were used as weapons (e.g., Job 39:23;41:29; Jer. 50:42), the prophets of Baal used lances and swords tocut themselves in order to arouse their god to action (1Kings18:28).

Land

The Hebrew word ’erets occurs 2,505 times in the OT andis most frequently translated “country” or “land.”“Earth” renders the Greek word gē in the NT. Notsurprisingly, ’erets appears 311 times in Genesis alone, thebook that initiates Israel’s landed covenant (Gen. 15:18). Theprimary uses of ’erets are cosmological (e.g., the earth) andgeographical (e.g., the land of Israel). Other uses of ’eretsinclude physical (e.g., the ground on which one stands) and political(e.g., governed countries) designations. Less frequently, “earth”translates the Hebrew word ’adamah (“country, ground,land, soil”).

Heavenand Earth

Israelshared the cosmology of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors. Thisworldview understood the earth as a “disk” upon theprimeval waters (Job 38:13; Isa. 40:22), with the earth having fourrims or “corners” (Ps. 135:7; Isa. 11:12). These rimswere sealed at the horizon to prevent the influx of cosmic waters.God speaks to Job about the dawn grasping the edges of the earth andshaking the evil people out of it (Job 38:12–13). Similarly,the Akkadian text Hymn to the Sun-God states, “You [Shamash]are holding the ends of the earth suspended from the midst of heaven”(I:22). The earth’s boundaries were set against chaos (Ps.104:7–9; Isa. 40:12). In this way, the Creator and the Saviorcannot be separated because, taken together, God works against chaosin the mission of redemption (Ps. 74:12–17; Isa. 51:9–11).The phrase “heavens and earth” is a merism (two extremesrepresenting the whole) for the entire universe (Gen. 1:1; Ps.102:25). Over the earth arched a firm “vault” (Gen. 1:6).Heaven’s vault rested on the earth’s “pillars,”the mountains (Deut. 32:22; 1Sam. 2:8). Below the heavens isthe sea, part of the earth’s flat surface.

Therewas no term for “world” in the OT. The perception ofworld was basically bipartite (heaven and earth), though sometripartite expressions also occur (e.g., heaven, earth, sea [Exod.20:11; Rev. 5:3, 13]). Though rare, some uses of ’erets mayrefer to the “underworld” or Sheol (Exod. 15:12; Jer.17:13; Jon. 2:6). The earth can be regarded as the realm of the dead(Matt. 12:40; Eph. 4:9). However, the OT is less concerned with theorganic structure of the earth than with what fills the earth:inhabitants (Ps. 33:14; Isa. 24:1), people groups (Gen. 18:18; Deut.28:10), and kingdoms (Deut. 28:25; 2Kings 19:15). The term’erets can be used symbolically to indicate its inhabitants(Gen. 6:11). However, unlike its neighbors, Israel acknowledged nodivine “Mother Earth,” given the cultural associationswith female consorts.

TheTheology of Land

Inbiblical faith, the concept of land combines geography with theology.The modern person values land more as a place to build than for itsproductive capacities. But from the outset, human beings and the“earth” (’erets) functioned in a symbioticrelationship with the Creator (Gen. 1:28). God even gave the landagency to “bring forth living creatures” (Gen. 1:24). The“ground” (’adamah) also provided the raw substanceto make the human being (’adam [Gen. 2:7]). In turn, the humanbeing was charged with developing and protecting the land (Gen. 2:5,15). Showing divine care, the Noahic covenant was “between[God] and the earth” (Gen. 9:13). Thus, land was no mereonlooker; human rebellion had cosmic effects (Gen. 6:7, 17). The landcould be cursed and suffer (Gen. 3:17; cf. 4:11).

Israel’spromised land was built on the sanctuary prototype of Eden (Gen.13:10; Deut. 6:3; 31:20); both were defined by divine blessing,fertility, legal instruction, secure boundaries, and were orientingpoints for the world. Canaan was Israel’s new paradise,“flowing with milk and honey” (Exod. 3:8; Num. 13:27).Conversely, the lack of fertile land was tantamount to insecurity andjudgment. As Eden illustrated for Israel, any rupture of relationshipwith God brought alienation between humans, God, and the land; thiscould ultimately bring exile, as an ethically nauseated land “vomits”people out (Lev. 18:25, 28; 20:22; see also Deut. 4; 30).

ForIsrael, land involved both God’s covenant promise (Gen.15:18–21; 35:9–12) and the nation’s faithfulobedience (Gen. 17:1; Exod. 19:5; 1Kings 2:1–4).Conditionality and unconditionality coexisted in Israel’srelationship of “sonship” with Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Hos.11:1). Yahweh was the earth’s Lord (Ps. 97:5), Judge (Gen.18:25), and King (Ps. 47:2, 7). Both owner and giver, he was thesupreme landlord, who gifted the land to Israel (Exod. 19:5; Lev.25:23; Josh. 22:19; Ps. 24:1). The land was God’s “inheritance”to give (1 Sam. 26:19; 2 Sam. 14:16; Ps. 79:1; Jer. 2:7). TheLevites, however, did not receive an allotment of land as did theother tribes, since God was their “portion” (Num. 18:20;Ps. 73:26). Israel’s obedience was necessary both to enter andto occupy the land (Deut. 8:1–3; 11:8–9; 21:1; 27:1–3).Ironically, the earth swallowed rebellious Israelites when theyaccused Moses of bringing them “up out of a land flowing withmilk and honey” (Num. 16:13). As the conquest shows, however,no tribe was completely obedient, taking its full “inheritance”(Josh. 13:1).

Landpossession had serious ethical and religious ramifications (Deut.26:1–11). Israel was not chosen to receive a special land;rather, land was the medium of Israel’s relationship with God.Land functioned as a spiritual barometer (Ps. 78:56–64; Lam.1:3–5). The heavens and earth stood as covenant witnesses(Deut. 4:26). Blood, in particular, could physically pollute the land(Num. 35:30–34). National sin could culminate in expulsion(Lev. 26:32–39), and eventually the land was lost (Jer.25:1–11). For this reason, Israel’s exiles prompted aprofound theological crisis.

Inheritance

Thenotion of inheritance connected Israel’s religious worship withpractical stewardship. Land was not owned; it was passed down throughpatrimonial succession. God entrusted each family with an inheritancethat was to be safeguarded (Lev. 25:23–28; Mic. 2:1–2).This highlights the serious crime when Naboth’s vineyard wasforcibly stolen (1Kings 21). It was Israel’s filialsonship with Yahweh and Israel’s land tenure that formedYahweh’s solidarity with the nation. The law helped limitIsrael’s attachment to mere real estate: Yahweh was to beIsrael’s preoccupation (see Jer. 3:6–25). When the nationwas finally exiled, the message of the new covenant transcendedgeographical boundaries (Jer. 32:36–44; Ezek. 36–37; cf.Lev. 26:40–45; Deut. 30:1–10). In postexilic Israel,sanctuary was prioritized (Hag. 1:9–14).

Itwas Israel’s redefinition of land through the exile thatprepared the way for the incorporation of the Gentiles (Ezek.47:22–23), an integration already anticipated (Isa. 56:3–7).The prophets saw a time when the nations would share in theinheritance of God previously guarded by Israel (Isa. 60; Zech. 2:11;cf. Gen. 12:3). Viewed as a political territory, land receives nosubstantial theological treatment in the NT; rather, inheritancesurpasses covenant metaphor. Using the language of sonship andinheritance, Paul develops this new Gentile mission in Galatians (cf.Col. 1:13–14). The OT land motif fully flowers in the NTteaching of adoption (cf. 1Pet. 1:3–5). Both curse andcovenant are resolved eschatologically (Rom. 8:19–22).Inheritance is now found in Christ (Eph. 2:11–22; 1Pet.1:4). In the economy of the new covenant, land tenure has matured infellowship (koinōnia). Koinōnia recalibrates the ethicalsignificance of OT land themes, reapplying them practically throughinclusion, lifestyle, economic responsibility, and social equity.

Beyondcosmological realms, heaven and earth are also theological horizonsstill under God’s ownership. What began as the creation mandateto fill and subdue the earth (Gen. 1:28) culminates in the newcreation with Christ (Rom. 8:4–25). Under the power of Satan,the earth “lags behind” heaven. Christ’s missionbrings what is qualitatively of heaven onto the earthly stage, oftenusing signs of the budding rule of God (Matt. 6:10; Mark 2:10–11;John 3:31–36; Eph. 4:9–13; Heb. 12:25). As Israel was tostand out in a hostile world (Deut. 4:5–8), now those ofAbrahamic faith stand out through Christian love (John 13:34–35;Rom. 4:9–16). According to Heb. 4:1–11, Israel’sinitial rest in the land (see Exod. 33:14; Deut. 12:9) culminates inthe believers’ rest in Christ (Heb. 4:3, 5). The formerinheritance of space gives way to the inheritance of Christ’spresence. The OT theme of land is ultimately fulfilled in Jesus’exhortation to “abide in me” (John 15).

Earthquake–InPalestine there have been about seventeen recorded major earthquakesin the past two millennia. One of the major sources of theseearthquakes is believed to originate from the Jordan Rift Valley. Inantiquity earthquakes were viewed as fearful events because themountains, which represented everlasting durability, were disturbed.The confession of faith is pronounced in association with suchphenomena (“We will not fear, though the earth give way”[Ps. 46:2]). An earthquake must have made a great impact in Amos’sday (“two years before the earthquake” [Amos 1:1; cf.Zech. 14:5]).

Anearthquake has many symbolic meanings. First, the power of God andhis divine presence are manifested through it (Job 9:6; Ps. 68:8;Hag. 2:6). It accompanied theophanic revelation (Exod. 19:18; Isa.6:4; 1Kings 19:11–12) when the glory of the Lord appeared(Ezek. 3:12). His divine presence was especially felt whenearthquakes occurred during the time of the crucifixion and theresurrection of Jesus Christ (Matt. 27:54; 28:2). It led thecenturion to confess of Christ, “Surely he was the Son of God!”(Matt. 27:54). God’s salvation power is represented when anearthquake comes at the appropriate moment, such as when it freedPaul and Silas from prison (Acts 16:26).

Second,it is used in the context of God’s judgment (Isa. 13:13; Amos9:1; Nah. 1:5). It becomes the symbol of God’s anger and wrath(Ps. 18:7). God brought earthquakes upon the people to destroy evilin the world and to punish those who had sinned against him (Num.16:31–33; Isa. 29:6; Ezek. 38:19). Earthquake activity possiblyexplains the background to the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen.19:24).

Third,earthquakes are said to precede the end of time (Matt. 24:7; Mark13:8; Luke 21:11). In the apocalyptic book of Revelation, earthquakesare regular occurrences (Rev. 6:12; 11:13, 19; 16:18).

Laugh

In the Bible, “laugh” rarely denotes a responseto humor. Most prominent in the Scriptures is the laugh of scorn orderision. Animals and humans can laugh at danger (Job 5:22; 39:7;Prov. 31:25). God laughs at those who oppose him (Pss. 2:4; 37:13;59:8), and Wisdom laughs at those who ignore her (Prov. 1:26). Peoplecan become laughingstocks to others (Exod. 32:25; Lam. 3:14). Jesuswas laughed at in ridicule (Matt. 9:24; Mark 5:40; Luke 8:53).

Laughteris prominent throughout the narrative of Isaac’s birth. BothAbraham (Gen. 17:17) and Sarah (18:12) laughed when they heard thatIsaac would be born to them in their old age. When Isaac, whose namemeans “he laughs” (see 17:19 NIV mg.), was born, Sarahspoke of the laughter that God had brought to her and that otherswould have (21:6).

Furthermore,the biblical writers often contrast laughter with mourning. In suchinstances, laughter represents feelings of happiness or joy (Eccles.3:4; Luke 6:21, 25; James 4:9).

Laying on of Hands

Laying hands on someone/something has two literal uses andtwo with symbolic significance. (1)Literally, to take something(e.g., Exod. 22:8–11; Esther 9:10–16; Matt. 26:51; Luke9:62) or someone—that is, to make an arrest (e.g., Neh. 13:21;Matt. 26:50; Mark 14:46; Luke 20:19; 21:12; 22:53; John 7:30, 44;Acts 4:3; 5:18; 12:1; 21:27). (2)Literally, to lay hands onpersons (or things) so as to hurt or destroy them (e.g., Gen. 22:12;37:22; 1Sam. 22:17; 24:5–13; 26:9–23; Job 1:12;9:33; Isa. 11:14; Jer. 15:6; Ezek. 39:21). (3)Laying a handover one’s mouth as a symbolic gesture of amazement (Mic. 7:16)or humility (Job 40:4). (4)A gesture to symbolize the transferof something from one person to another. Transfer symbolismapplications include the transfer of representative identity insacrificing (e.g., Exod. 29:10–19; Lev. 1:4; 16:21; Num.8:10–12; 2Chron. 29:23–24), of authority incommissioning (ordination) (e.g., Num. 27:18–23; Deut. 34:9;Acts 6:6; 13:3), of blessing (e.g., Gen. 48:13–20; Matt.19:13–15), of life and health (e.g., Matt. 8:3, 15; 9:18, 25,29; 20:34; Mark 6:5; 7:32–33; 8:22–26; 16:18; Luke 4:40;7:14; 13:13; 22:51; Acts 8:17; 9:12, 17; 28:8), and of the HolySpirit and spiritual gifting (Acts 8:17–19; 9:17; 19:6; 1Tim.4:14; 2Tim. 1:6).

Threeadditional things should be noted about this transfer symbolism.First, the laying on of hands is symbolic rather than purelycausative. This is evidenced when Jesus and the apostles creditfaith, and not mere touch, for healings (e.g., Matt. 9:22, 29–30;Luke 17:19; Acts 3:12–16; 14:9; cf. Matt. 13:58), when healingsoccur from a distance (e.g., Matt. 8:5–13; 15:21–28; John4:46–54) and/or with no apparent touch involved (e.g., Matt.8:28–34; 9:1–8, 32–33; 12:22; 17:14–21; Mark1:23–28; Luke 17:11–19; John 5:1–9; 11:1–44;Acts 5:15; 9:32–35, 40–41; 14:8–10; 16:18), whenthe Holy Spirit comes upon people without touch (e.g., Acts10:44–45), and when Peter strongly rebukes Simon Magus forassuming that the Holy Spirit is dispensed by mere touch (Acts8:17–24).

Second,the early church used the laying on of hands for commissioning churchworkers (Acts 6:6), missionaries (Acts 13:3),and elders (Acts 14:23 [the Greek word used for “appointing,”cheirotoneō, is derivedfrom the words for “extend,” teinō, and “hand,”cheir; cf. 2Cor. 8:19). Since the act was conducted by apostles(Acts 6:6), by prophets and teachers (Acts 13:1–3), byPaul and Barnabas (Acts 14:23; 2Tim. 1:6), and by church elders(1Tim. 4:14), we may conclude that the early church had noestablished hierarchy for ordination.

Third,the NT has some guidelines for commissioning Christian workers (cf.Heb. 6:2). Church leaders have weighty responsibilities (Acts 20:28;1Tim. 3:1–13; 5:17; Titus 1:5–9; 1Pet.5:1–4), so it is not surprising that a church elder/overseermust not be a recent convert (1Tim. 3:6) or hastily ordained(1Tim. 5:22), and that a deacon must first be tested (1Tim.3:10).

Leviathan

A transliteration of a Hebrew word (liwyatan) that refers tosome kind of sea creature, variously mentioned in OT passagesextolling God for his mighty work and power.

Theword may not refer to the same creature in each OT verse in which itoccurs. Psalm 104:26 may be describing a whale; however, in most ofthe OT, it is probable that “Leviathan” is the propername of a mythical sea monster that also appears in ancient Ugariticmyths. In these documents, Leviathan is usually depicted as amultiheaded and chaotic dragon that wreaks havoc upon the cosmos andcan be slain only by the gods. Drawing on this mythologicalbackground, Ps. 74:14 praises God because during his work of creationhe “crushed the heads of Leviathan and gave it as food to thecreatures of the desert.”

Asimilar idea is present in Job 41:1–34 (cf. 3:8). HereLeviathan is described as a creature that no mere human can defeat oreven look upon (41:9). It breathes out fire and smoke (41:18–21),cannot be pierced by sword or spear (41:26), and fears no earthlybeing (41:33). Such hyperbolic descriptions are most intuitivelyexplained in terms of Leviathan’s mythological background, usedhere to dramatically accent the all-encompassing power of God.

Noneof these passages implies the actual existence of the creaturedescribed; on the contrary, they draw on this material tometaphorically accent God’s unique and preeminent authorityover the forces of chaos. Leviathan, and by extension the destructivepower of the sea, represents a threat beyond the control of humanity.God alone is able to slay “the monster of the sea,” anact that signals God’s final judgment upon the wickedness ofthe earth (Isa. 26:20–27:1). Revelation may draw on thisimagery as well, for God alone is able to destroy the beast and theseven-headed dragon (12:3; 13:1; 19:20) and thereby bring peace tothe earth.

Lightning

References to lightning play a significant role in varioustheologically rich portrayals of God. God is sovereign over allcreation and thus in control of the lightning. As one of God’sservants, lightning obeys his commands (e.g., Job 36:32; 37:15;38:24–25; Pss. 18:12–14; 135:7). Lightning is also calledupon to give praise to God (Ps. 148:7–8). God’s use oflightning against his enemies (Exod. 9:23–24; 2Sam.22:13–15; Pss. 78:48; 144:6) forms part of the OT picture ofGod as warrior. (Artwork from other ancient Near Easterncivilizations depicts their deities as making war on their enemiesand holding lightning bolts in their hands, ready to hurl them downto the earth.)

Varioustheophanies (appearances of God) are accompanied by lightning (Exod.19:16; 20:18). In other visionary theophanies, lightning is usedeither to describe the appearance of God’s attendant creaturesor to describe God’s own appearance (Ezek. 1:4, 13–14;Dan. 10:6; Matt. 24:27; Luke 9:29; 17:24). God’s judgments aredescribed either as being accompanied by lightning or as being likelightning (Hos. 6:5; Zech. 9:14; Rev. 4:5; 8:5; 11:19; 16:18).

Line

The word “line” is used a number of ways in theBible. Most commonly, “line” refers to the family line ofdescent, which emphasizes succession through fathers and sons (Gen.19:32; Num. 26:11; Deut. 25:9–10; Ruth 4:18; 1Sam.2:31–32, 36; Ezra 2:6, 40; Ps. 89:4; Isa. 48:1; Luke 2:4).Secondarily, a line is a tool used by an artisan or a carpenter formeasuring length (2Chron. 4:2; Job 38:5; Isa. 44:13); it isused metaphorically, in conjunction with a plumb line, to signifyGod’s judgment (Isa. 28:17; 34:11). A battle line is an arrayof soldiers readied for an imminent conflict (1Sam. 17:2, 8;2Chron. 13:3). A line is also a queue (Ruth 4:4) or a boundary(Ps. 16:6), including a standard for behavior (Gal. 2:14). Finally,it is a physical cord or thread (Josh. 2:18; Ezek. 40:3 KJV), such asa fishing line (Matt. 17:27).

Loins

Anatomically, “loins” refers to the waist andlower back. In the NIV, the term primarily refers to parts ofsacrificial animals (Lev. 3:4, 10, 15; 4:9; 7:4). Generally, wherethe KJV uses “loins,” the NIV prefers “waist.”Sackcloth was worn around this part of the body to signify mourning(Gen. 37:34; 1Kings 20:31–32) and a sword was hung here(2Sam. 20:8). A garment made for the loin area, sometimesreferred to as a loincloth (Job 12:18), was comparable to underwear(Exod. 28:42). The expression “gird the loins” is anidiom for readiness (Job 38:3; Prov. 31:17; Luke 12:35; Eph. 6:14KJV) and a metaphor for nonphysical preparation (1Pet. 1:13KJV), since the belt was worn on the waist (near the loins) andgarments were tucked into the belt for work, quick movement, andbattle (Exod. 12:11; 1Kings 18:46; Nah. 2:1). “Loins”also can refer to the genitalia (1Kings 12:10 KJV [NIV:“waist”]; Jer. 30:6 KJV [NIV: “stomach”]) orbe part of an idiom denoting descendants (Gen. 35:11; 46:26 KJV).

Lotus

Mentioned only once, the biblical lotus plant is an aquatictree broad enough to conceal a large, grass-eating mammal (perhaps ahippopotamus) that hides in its shade (Job 40:21–22).

Manger

A container or basin that holds the feed for domesticated farm animals such as cattle, sheep, or horses (Prov. 14:4; KJV: “crib”). Job speaks of a manger in relation to a wild ox, asking, “Will it stay by your manger at night?” (Job 39:9), implying that mangers are used for domesticated animals only. Isaiah laments Israel’s waywardness, unlike the donkey, which knows its “owner’s manger” (Isa. 1:3). For want of a room at the inn, Mary wrapped Jesus in cloths and placed him in a manger shortly after his birth (Luke 2:7). Nearby, shepherds were told by angels that Christ the Lord had been born in Bethlehem, and that the sign to them would be a baby wrapped in cloths lying in a manger (2:12). They journeyed to Bethlehem and found Jesus just as the angels had said (2:16).

Marsh

A swamp or wet piece of land, usually found near the mouth ofa river or on the edge of a lake (Job 8:11; 40:21; Ezek. 47:11).

Mazzaroth

A transliteration of an obscure Hebrew term, mazzarot, foundin Job 38:32. The various ways it can be understood include a propername of a constellation (KJV, ESV), a reference to the twelve signsof the zodiac (REB), and a generic term for a constellation or stars(NIV, NASB).

Millstone

One of several different types of stone implements used togrind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily,so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life(Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22). Women (Matt. 24:41) or servants (Exod.11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Judg. 16:21),might be made to perform the mundane task.

Millsoften were small enough for one person to use. Apparently, the oldesttype of hand mill included a lower, concave stone made of basalt orother hard stone (Job 41:24). The person grinding rubbed a second,smaller, loaf-shaped upper millstone (Judg. 9:53) back and forth onthe lower one to grind the grain. Later mills had two circular slabs,and the user rotated the upper stone by a wooden peg attached as ahandle. Larger mills were also used in commercial operations. Alarge, well-carved double inverted cone was set on a cone-shapedlower stone. A pair of people or animals rotated the upper stone bypushing posts set into sockets. References to casting largemillstones into the sea (Matt. 18:6; Rev. 18:21) probably refer tosuch a large upper millstone.

Morning Star

In the OT, “morning star” may indicate a star(Job 3:9) or celestial beings in general; for example, “morningstars” is parallel to “angels” (lit., “sonsof God”; see NIV mg.) in Job 38:7. In a passage addressed tothe king of Babylon, Isa. 14:12–13 describes him as the“morning star [ESV, NRSV: “Day Star”], son of thedawn” who spoke presumptuously and fell from heaven. The KJVinstead translates the term as “Lucifer,” a name that hastraditionally been applied to Satan (see also Lucifer). NT imageryassociates the brilliant morning star with the dawn of the messianickingdom of David fulfilled in Jesus (2Pet. 1:19 [KJV: “daystar”]; cf. Num. 24:17; Isa. 60:1–3), promising themorning star to those who overcome (Rev. 2:28). In Rev. 22:16, Jesusidentifies himself as the “bright Morning Star.”

Neesings

In Job 41:18 the KJV translates the Hebrew ’atishah as“neesings,” referring to the “snorting” (NIV)or “sneezing” (NRSV) inthe description ofLeviathan.

Nose

Mentioned only in the OT in most Bible versions (MSG uses“nose” in the NT as part of English idioms; e.g., Matt.13:57; 21:32), the nose often is referred to in the context ofjewelry, as nose rings for women were a fine adornment in ancientHebrew culture (Gen. 24:47; Ezek. 16:12), in some cases indicative ofextravagance (Isa. 3:16–24). Other times, a stronger partywould direct a weaker party by means of a hook or a cord in theirnose (2Kings 19:28; 2Chron. 33:11; Job 40:24).

TheHebrew word for nose, ’ap, could be used metaphorically foranger, much as English speakers might say that an angry person “hassteam coming out of his nose.” Thus, the NIV’s “[he]became angry” can translate the Hebrew phrase “[his] noseburned” (Gen. 30:2; Judg. 10:7). The same Hebrew term can alsorefer to nostrils. The NIV uses the translation “nostrils”several times in the OT, often in poetry, usually in connection withbreath (Gen. 2:7; 7:22; 2Sam. 22:16 [cf. Ps. 18:15]; Job 27:3)or as a source of smoke (2Sam. 22:9 [cf. Ps. 18:8]; Job 41:20).

TheHebrews also used ’ap to refer to the entire face, normallywhen a person was bowing facedown. In such instances, “boweddown with his face to the ground” translates the Hebrew phrase“bowed down with nostrils [’appayim] toward the ground”(Gen. 19:1; 1Sam. 25:41).

Nostril

Mentioned only in the OT in most Bible versions (MSG uses“nose” in the NT as part of English idioms; e.g., Matt.13:57; 21:32), the nose often is referred to in the context ofjewelry, as nose rings for women were a fine adornment in ancientHebrew culture (Gen. 24:47; Ezek. 16:12), in some cases indicative ofextravagance (Isa. 3:16–24). Other times, a stronger partywould direct a weaker party by means of a hook or a cord in theirnose (2Kings 19:28; 2Chron. 33:11; Job 40:24).

TheHebrew word for nose, ’ap, could be used metaphorically foranger, much as English speakers might say that an angry person “hassteam coming out of his nose.” Thus, the NIV’s “[he]became angry” can translate the Hebrew phrase “[his] noseburned” (Gen. 30:2; Judg. 10:7). The same Hebrew term can alsorefer to nostrils. The NIV uses the translation “nostrils”several times in the OT, often in poetry, usually in connection withbreath (Gen. 2:7; 7:22; 2Sam. 22:16 [cf. Ps. 18:15]; Job 27:3)or as a source of smoke (2Sam. 22:9 [cf. Ps. 18:8]; Job 41:20).

TheHebrews also used ’ap to refer to the entire face, normallywhen a person was bowing facedown. In such instances, “boweddown with his face to the ground” translates the Hebrew phrase“bowed down with nostrils [’appayim] toward the ground”(Gen. 19:1; 1Sam. 25:41).

Ointment

A translation of various words in the Bible that describe theuse of oil or other semisolid salves that are applied to the body andspecifically not used for cooking. The NIV translators tend to preferthe words “oil,” “balm,” or “perfume”rather than “ointment,” but all these words can be usedto describe the same substance.

Varietiesand Value

Almostall the ointments prepared and used in the ancient Near East had anolive oil base. Exceptions to an olive oil base include oils madefrom a myrrh plant, cinnamon, or aloe. Often an olive oil base, whichcould be used by itself, was mixed by a perfumer with other spices,herbs, aromatic or medicinal plants, and/or tree products (Exod.30:23–25). Occasionally, animals, especially sea animals, mightalso be used to create ointments. The actual process followed formaking ointments is not completely known, although boiling often waspart of the process of scent extraction (Job 41:31). Usually theperfume or ointment was carefully stored in either alabaster or leadand placed in a cool place to preserve its aromatic and medicinalqualities. The job of perfuming was, at times, considered woman’swork, as is the case when Samuel told the Israelites not to ask for aking (1Sam. 8:13). However, the Bible records at least one maleperfumer, Hananiah, who helped Nehemiah repair part of Jerusalem’swall (Neh. 3:8).

Ointmentsoften were used as a trading commodity and generally were consideredvery valuable and a special luxury item (Song 3:6–7), theexception, perhaps, being plain olive oil. The traders who boughtJoseph before taking him to Egypt were trading, among other things,ointments and perfume (Gen. 37:25). King Hezekiah included ointmentsin his display to the envoys from Babylon when they came to see hiswealth (Isa. 39:2). The prophet Amos equated the use of oil (NIV:“lotions”) to being wealthy (Amos 6:6). Ecclesiastes 7:1regards ointment as something to be treasured. When Mary anointedJesus’ feet with ointment, Judas Iscariot complained about themoney being wasted with this action (John 12:3–6). In Mark’sGospel a similar anointing event is recorded, with the vial ofperfume valued at over three hundred denarii (Mark 14:3–5). Asingle denarius was roughly the equivalent of a day’s wages.Thus, the NIV translates the price as being the equivalent to ayear’s pay.

Uses

Therewere numerous uses for ointment in the ancient Near East, includingmedicinal, cosmetic, religious, and burial preparation.

Probablythe most common use for ointment was medicinal. Medicinal ointmentswere used to treat many ailments, including creating a barrier toprotect wounds from infection and relieving minor skin irritations(see Isa. 1:6). The prophet Jeremiah metaphorically says that therewill be no healing balm of Gilead for the people of Jerusalem afterGod has his way with them (Jer. 8:22; 46:11). Although it has notbeen confirmed in ancient documents or the archaeological record, thecity of Gilead apparently was noted for its industry of makinghealing ointments.

Anothercommon use for ointment was cosmetic. Esther, for example, was put ona regimen of ointment treatments (oil of myrrh) for six months andthen perfume treatments for another six months (Esther 2:12). Ruthused perfume or ointment to prepare herself to see Boaz (Ruth 3:3).The use of ointment was not limited to women; men used it as well.For example, after David had finished mourning for his son, he put onointment and resumed normal life (2Sam. 12:20). In Eccles. 9:8the writer advises, as part of enjoying life, “Always anointyour head with oil.”

Ointmentsalso had many different uses within the religious life of theIsraelites. For example, ointments had a special role in tabernacleworship. Exodus details the instructions for making the ointment tobe used in consecration ceremonies when anointing the high priestsand the furniture of the tabernacle (and later the temple). Thisointment included 500 shekels of myrrh, 250 shekels of cinnamon, 250shekels of cane, 500 shekels of cassia, and a hin of olive oil (Exod.30:22–25). A shekel equaled somewhere between nine and sixteenounces; thus 500 shekels was approximately 500 pounds. A hin waslikely the equivalent of about one liquid gallon. The exact processfor mixing the ingredients together is not given, but it must havefollowed a fairly standard method of preparation for it not to bedetailed in the text. Interestingly, the perfumer also mixed the dryincense used in the tabernacle. Furthermore, the recipes for thesespecial ointments were set aside and prohibited for general use bythe population.

Throughoutthe book of Leviticus, the high priest is referred to as the“anointed priest,” which denotes the fact that the sacredointment had been put on him and consecrated him for service to God(Lev. 4:16; 6:22; 8:12). The Hebrew term meshiakh (“messiah”)also indicates someone who has been anointed. This term, generallyapplied to kings, was not limited to Jewish kings; for example,Cyrus, king of the Medes and Persians, was considered anointed (Isa.45:1). Prophets too were considered anointed by God (Ps. 105:15).

Ointmentswere also used in the preparation of a corpse for burial. Given thehumid conditions of Palestine and the lack of sophisticated embalmingmethods, it was necessary to add ointments to the body in preparationfor burial. This was also done to honor the deceased. For example,after Jesus died, the women who first discovered his resurrection hadcome to anoint his body with spices and ointment (Mark 16:1).

Inthe NT, anointing with oil took on symbolic meaning. The oil came torepresent the Holy Spirit or the presence of God. For example, inActs 10:38 it is said that “God anointed Jesus of Nazareth withthe Holy Spirit” (cf. 4:27). James prescribes that churchelders anoint the sick with oil when praying over them (James 5:14).

Orion

The Greek name for a large constellation depicting a mightyarmed warrior. The same constellation may have been seen as aheavenly adumbration of the god Osiris by the Egyptians. Scriptureasserts that the Lord is the creator of all constellations, even therevered Orion (Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8).

Ostrich

The ostrich is listed with other wild birds as unclean (Lev.11:13–19; Deut. 14:11–18). It is unclear why they areconsidered unclean, but some eat dead flesh, and this may be part ofthe reason. Ostriches carry a symbolic value also, as can be seen inthese lists by their association with the wild fowl of the desert;they connote desolation, uninhabited wilderness. Where the ostrichdwells, humans do not. Thus, the ostrich is found with the jackal,the hyena, and the owl. “Therefore wild animals shall live withhyenas in Babylon, and ostriches shall inhabit her; she shall neveragain be peopled, or inhabited for all generations” (Jer. 50:39NRSV). God made the loveless and foolish wild ostrich (Job 39:13–18).

Ox

A common beast of burden, mentioned mostly in the OT. The oxwas particularly important in the biblical world, with its mostlyagricultural economies. The Bible seems to mention two types, thedomesticated ox and the wild ox. The former is mentioned commonlywith other domesticated animals (sheep, donkeys) representative ofproperty (Deut. 22:1, 10). Its main use was agricultural, whether forplowing the field, threshing grain, or pulling carts. The wild ox ismentioned largely in connection with its strength and fierce nature(Num. 24:8; Job 39:9).

Pasture

An open area where herders tended sheep, goats, or cattle(Joel 1:18) or where wild donkeys (Job 39:8) or deer (Lam. 1:6)grazed. The best pasture was open, quiet, and peaceful (1Chron.4:40), but it might be the result of God’s destruction (Isa.32:14). Conversely, good pasture represented God’s restoration(Ezek. 34:14) or God himself (Jer. 50:7).

Peacock

“Peacock” is a traditional translation of thelast item in the list of luxuries that Solomon’s ships broughtfrom Tarshish (1Kings 10:22; 2Chron. 9:21 [e.g., KJV,ESV, NLT]). However, a more probable translation of the Hebrew wordtukki is “baboon” (NIV) or “monkey” (NAB).All the other items come from Africa, but peacocks come from Asia.The KJV also uses “peacock” to translate renanim in Job39:13, but this is probably better translated as “ostrich,”as in the NIV.

Plants

Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).

Pleiades

The Pleiades (the Seven Sisters) form a constellation ofseven stars that the Bible always lists together with Orion, anotherstar cluster that appears in close proximity in the night sky. Job9:9 and Amos 5:8 mention the Pleiades and Orion as products of God’scraftsmanship and evidence of his creative power. Job 38:31 adds theinteresting detail that they are “bound” together by him.In Greek myth, Orion chased after seven sisters (the Pleiades) forfive years, and Zeus turned both Orion and the daughters into starsjust before he caught them.

Providence

The word “providence” comes from the Latin wordprovidentia, which means “foresight.” However, the moderntheological use of the term refers not to foresight or foreknowl-edgeperse but rather to how God continues to sustain and guide hiscreation. There is no single term in either the OT or the NT thattranslates as “providence.” The one time the word occursin the NIV (Job 10:12), the Hebrew word (peqqudah) is one that theNIV in other places usually translates with words such as “care,”“charge,” or “oversight.” The concept ofdivine providence comes not from any one word but rather fromnumerous statements in the Bible that speak of God’s continuingsupervision of his world. The biblical data can perhaps best beorganized under four headings: created order, world history,salvation history, and individual history. These headings are,however, not discrete; they continually intersect.

CreatedOrder

Scripturetestifies in numerous places to God’s ongoing supervision ofhis creation. The psalms play a special role here. As one commentatorhas remarked, there are no nature lyrics in the psalms, onlyadmiration and awe at how God runs his world. God actively cares forthe land and waters it, causes grass to grow, plants trees, and makessure that they are well watered (Pss. 65:9; 104:14, 16). God bringsdarkness on the land and tells the sun when to set and when to rise(Ps. 104:19–20). God is the zookeeper who makes sure all theanimals are fed (Ps. 104:27). Every birth of every living creature isregarded as a new creative work of God, and he constantly renews theface of the earth (Ps. 104:30).

Godblankets the earth with snow and lays down a sheet of frost (Ps.147:16). When the snow and frost melt, it is because God commanded itby his word and sent breezes to make the melting waters flow (Ps.147:18). Hail, snow, clouds, and stormy winds do their Master’sbidding (Ps. 148:8). God commands the morning to dawn and keeps thesnow and hail in storehouses, ready to be deployed on the day ofbattle (Job 38:12, 22–23). The sea waves roar because God stirsthem up (Jer. 31:35). God even speaks of being in a covenantrelationship with his creation (Jer. 33:20, 25).

Inthe NT, we find that Jesus Christ himself sustains “all thingsby his powerful word” (Heb. 1:3). In him “all things holdtogether” (Col. 1:17).

WorldHistory

Whathappens on the world scene is under God’s sovereign control. Ifthe nations are scattered over the world and speak differentlanguages, it is because God made it so (Gen. 11:1–9). Goddetermines whether the nations are blessed or cursed (Gen. 12:3). Godis the one who has apportioned each nation’s inher-i-tance andhas established their boundaries (Deut. 32:8). Yahweh is the God ofIsrael, which is his special possession, but he has also appointeddeities for the other nations to worship (Deut. 4:19 [evidently falsegods, but still under Yahweh’s sovereignty]). He judges theworld and carries out justice for the peoples, foils the plans of thenations, forms the hearts of all people, reigns over the nations andguides them (Pss. 9:8; 33:10, 15; 47:8; 67:4).

Itis by God’s sanction that kings reign, and a king’s heartis like a watercourse, which God can redirect at will (Prov. 8:15;21:1). God “does as he pleases with the powers of heaven andthe peoples of the earth” (Dan. 4:35). All thrones, powers,rulers, and authorities “were created through him and for him”(Col. 1:16). God is actively working to bring the whole universe andall peoples and nations under one head, his Son, Christ Jesus (Eph.1:10).

SalvationHistory

Withinworld history, God has also worked through one particular people, theIsraelites, to accomplish his redemptive purposes. When Joseph toldhis brothers that what they had intended to do to him for evil, Godhad intended for good, for “the saving of many lives”(Gen. 50:20), he may not have fully realized how much his words werein accord with, and could even be said to summarize, redemptivehistory. God took the harm that Joseph’s brothers intended andused it to fulfill the promises that he had made years earlier toAbraham with regard to what would happen to his descendants (Gen.12:1–3). In the early chapters of Exodus, God’ssovereignty over the “forces of nature” intersects withhis deliverance of the Israelites in the plagues that he brings onthe Egyptians. Of course, God had raised up Pharaoh for the verypurpose of displaying his own glory in victory over Pharaoh and “allthe gods of Egypt” (Exod. 9:16; 12:12; cf. Rom. 9:17).

Throughoutthe ensuing Israelite history, God demonstrates his providential carefor the Israelites. The Jews return from their Babylonian captivitybecause God raised up Cyrus, even though Cyrus did not acknowledgehim (Isa. 44:28–45:13), for the very purpose of issuing thedecree that allowed them to return. Even in narratives in which God’sname is not mentioned, such as the book of Esther, we are tounderstand that God is directing the action, and certainly thenarrator wants us to connect the account ofthe origin of thefestival of Purim (“lots”) with the idea that “thelot is cast into the lap, but its every decision is from the Lord”(Prov. 16:33).

Inthe NT the act that secures our redemption, the crucifixion of Jesus,is not an unforeseen occurrence that God makes the best of; rather,the death of Jesus is that which he himself would “accomplish”(Luke 9:31 NRSV [NIV: “bring to fulfillment”]). No onetakes Jesus’ life from him; he lays it down of his own accord(John 10:18). Jesus even gives Judas Iscariot directions on the nightof his betrayal (John 13:27). What happens in the crucifixion is inaccord with “God’s deliberate plan and foreknowledge”(Acts 2:23) and with what his “power and will had decidedbeforehand should happen” (4:28).

IndividualHistory

Jesuspromises that for those who seek the kingdom of God, “all thesethings will be given to you as well” (Matt. 6:33). If God feedsthe birds of the air and clothes the grass of the field, much morewill he take care to feed and clothe us (Matt. 6:26, 30). Indeed, “inall things God works for the good of those who love him, who havebeen called according to his purpose” (Rom. 8:28).

Quiver

A container, typically made of leather, for carrying arrows(Gen. 27:3; Job 39:23; Isa. 22:6) and usually slung over theshoulders of hunters.

Reed

The bulrush or papyrus plant was a type of reed growing inmarshes or riverbanks, especially of the Nile. It was a basicresource for writing, fuel (Job 41:20), ropes (Job 41:2), and lightvessels (Exod. 2:3). It is also used as a symbol of God’spunishment of Egypt (Isa. 19:15) and the restoration of Zion (Isa.35:7).

Seal

In the biblical world, documents were sealed with clay or wax(1Kings 21:8; Job 38:14; Neh. 9:38; Jer. 32:10; Rev. 5:1). Theintegrity of the seal was assured by impressing an image into thesoft substance, which would then harden and retain the unique imageof the sender’s seal. The archaeological record attests thispractice in the form of bullae (the impressions themselves, whichsurvive long after the documents have disintegrated) as well as alarge number of seals, which often were carved (Exod. 28:11; 39:6;Sir. 38:27; 45:11) into semiprecious stones or stone cylinders.

Aperson’s unique seal was closely identified with the owner andcould be worn as a ring or pendant (see Gen. 38:18; Esther 8:8; Song8:6). Besides documents, we have records of the sealing of caves(Matt. 27:66; cf. Dan. 6:17; 2Macc. 2:5) and bags (Job 14:17;Tob. 9:5). In apocalyptic literature, seals are used to concealprophecies of the future (Dan. 12:4) and to mark humans as belongingto God (Rev. 7:3–8).

Sinew

A tough structural tissue found in the body that connectsmuscles to bones; it is synonymous with tendon or ligament. It issymbolic of the intricate and wondrous nature of God’s creation(Job 10:11; 40:17). The phrase “iron sinew” (Isa. 48:4ESV, NRSV, NASB) connotes stubbornness and rebellion against God onIsrael’s part. Paul speaks of “sinews” with regardto the body of Christ and its various members (Col. 2:19).

Son of God

In the OT, heavenly beings or angels are sometimes referredto as “sons of God” (Gen. 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Pss.82:6; 89:6). The more important background for the NT, however, isthe use of the term with reference to the nation Israel and themessianic king from David’s line. Israel was God’s son byvirtue of God’s unique calling, deliverance, and protection.Hosea 11:1 reads, “When Israel was a child, I loved him, andout of Egypt I called my son.” Similar references to God as thefather of his people appear throughout the OT (Exod. 4:22; Num.11:12; Deut. 14:1; 32:5, 19; Isa. 43:6; 45:11; Jer. 3:4, 19; 31:9,20; Hos. 2:1). The king from the line of David is referred to as theson of God by virtue of his special relationship to God and hisrepresentative role among the people. In the Davidic covenant, Godpromises David concerning his descendant, “I will be hisfather, and he will be my son” (2Sam. 7:14; cf. Pss. 2:7;89:26). Later Judaism appears to have taken up these passages andidentified the coming Messiah as the “son of God.”

Inthe Synoptic Gospels, Jesus’ divine sonship is closely linkedto his messiahship. The angel Gabriel connects Jesus’ status as“Son of the Most High” with his reception of the throneof David (Luke 1:32). At Jesus’ baptism (which Luke identifiesas Jesus’ messianic anointing [Luke 3:21; 4:1, 14, 18]), theFather declares Jesus to be “my Son, whom I love” (3:22),an allusion to Ps. 2:7. Satan tempts Jesus as the Son of God toabandon obedience to the Father and claim independent authority(Matt. 4:1–11; Luke 4:1–13). Peter confesses that Jesusis “the Messiah, the Son of the living God” (Matt.16:16), and the high priest questions whether Jesus is “theMessiah, the Son of the Blessed One” (Mark 14:61; Matt. 26:63).In these and other texts “Son of God” is almostsynonymous with “Messiah” (cf. Mark 1:1; Luke 4:41;22:70; John 11:27; 20:31; Acts 9:20, 22). In other contexts, Jesus’divine sonship appears to exceed messianic categories. Jesus prays toGod as his Father (“Abba” [Mark 14:36]) and refers tohimself as the Son, who uniquely knows and reveals the Father. TheFather has committed all things to him. No one knows the Father butthe Son and those to whom the Son reveals him (Matt. 11:25–27;Luke 10:21–22). It is by virtue of Jesus’ unique sonshipthat he invites his disciples to pray to God as their Father (Matt.6:9).

Inthe Fourth Gospel, the status of Jesus as the Son of God isespecially important, indicating both Jesus’ uniquerelationship with the Father and his essential deity. John introducesthe notion of preexistent sonship in which the “Word”from creation is the Son (John 1:1–18; 17:5, 24). God sendsinto the world his Son (3:16), who reflects the glory of the Father(1:14; 14:6–11) and who will soon return (14:28). Jesus affirmsthat “I and the Father are one” (10:30), that “theFather is in me, and I in the Father” (10:38). John’spurpose in writing is to provoke faith “that Jesus is theMessiah, the Son of God” (20:31).

Somescholars reject the royal Jewish background of “the Son of God”when investigating the phrase in the Gospels. Instead, they appeal toHellenistic sources to argue that Jesus as the Son of God is a“divineman” (theios anēr), which accounts for his ability to workmiracles. This line of thinking, however, is fraught with manydifficulties, not least of which is that the epithet is never used todescribe the “divineman” in Greek literature.

InPaul’s thinking, the corporate, Israelite background of “Sonof God” is renewed with reference to the NT people of God. Paulstates that “theirs [the people of Israel] is the adoption tosonship” (Rom. 9:4). Although ethnic Israelites are rightfullycalled “sons of God,” this status is contingent uponbeing people of faith: “So in Jesus Christ you are all childrenof God through faith” (Gal. 3:26); Jesus’ death as theSon effects salvation (Rom. 8:2, 32; Gal. 2:20). The Spirit alsoplays a role in testifying with the spirits of believers that theyare indeed children of God (Rom. 8:15–16), by which they cry,“Abba, Father” (Gal. 4:3–6). The believers’status as God’s children will be completely revealed when theyshare in Christ’s glory (Rom. 8:17).

Sons of God

The Hebrew expression “sons of God” (often translated as “children of God” in contemporary usage) is an important biblical concept and is used to describe a range of referents.

In the OT, the term is used to refer to angels (e.g., Job 1:6). They are subordinate divine beings, carrying out God’s mission on earth (Job 2:1). Compared to them, Yahweh’s incomparability is asserted in divine council (Ps. 89:6; cf. Deut. 32:8 NIV mg.). They are called upon to praise Yahweh for his creation (Ps. 29:1). They shout for joy at God’s creation (Job 38:7). In Gen. 6:2 the term refers to beings that are apparently of divine origin and to be contrasted with the “daughters of men” in that same passage. The sin mentioned in this passage refers to the cohabitation of divine beings and humans. This union is one of the impetuses for the flood, an indication of how bad things had gotten. The “order” of creation (Gen. 1), where humans are meant to be fruitful with their own kind, is here transgressed. Hence, God introduces further disorder by bringing back the waters of chaos to flood the earth.

Israel as a covenant nation is called “my son, my firstborn” by Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Jer. 31:9; Hos. 11:1). As son, Israel is expected to give proper reverence and honor for his father (Mal. 1:6). Although only one of many metaphors for Israel in the OT, Israel’s status as son is important for understanding the movement of the book of Exodus. Israel is to be delivered from Egyptian rule because Israel is God’s son. If Pharaoh continues to mistreat Israel, God will call judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn, as he did in the plague of death and the Red Sea incident.

Sonship is not exclusive to Israel. The Gentiles are also included in the future of God’s program (Isa. 19:25; Zech. 14:16). Likewise, in the NT all humans are God’s children (Eph. 4:6). More often, though, the term refers to those who are in Christ. The bond is spiritual, and often the concept of adoption is used (John 1:12; Rom. 9:6; Gal. 3:26; 4:5–7; 1 John 5:1). See also Sons of God

Spark

A fiery particle thrown from a fire or produced by strikingtogether two hard materials such as stone or metal. The figurative“sparks” (Job 41:19) are understood to emanate from themouth of the mythical Leviathan. Man himself is the spark (Isa.1:31), a catalyst for punishment, destroying both people and theirwork. A tiny spark instigating a forest fire describes theuncontrollable and destructive power of the tongue (James 3:5).

Stone

A mineral cluster or rock. Although the terms “rock”and “stone” are occasionally used synonymously, “rock”usually refers to a large geological formation such as a cliff, cave,outcropping, or bedrock, while “stone” is preferred whenthe rock is small enough to be fashioned or handled by human beings.“Stone” can also function as an adjective, referring to amaterial made of stone, or as a verb, referring to the casting ofstones.

Rocksand stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12;Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as asign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2Sam. 18:17), as a markeror memorial (Gen. 31:46–50), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). Asingle rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen.28:22; 35:14, 20; 1Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones(Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also beused to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb,such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus(Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).

Stonewas used as a construction material, particularly for the temple(1Kings 5:15–18; 1Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15;Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundationand for the cornerstone or capstone (1Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26;Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becomingthe cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus(Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1Pet. 2:7; cf.Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh.8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments wereinscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1Kings 8:9; cf.2Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai theIsraelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed”stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). Thephrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, sincestone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf.Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); theterm “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to anidol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer.3:9; Ezek. 20:32).

Stoneswere used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown byhand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1Sam.17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone”refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typicallyfunctioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29;Deut. 21:20–21; 1Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd(Exod. 17:4; 1Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).

Thephrases “precious stones” and “costly stones”refer to gems (2Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1Cor.3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1Kings10:2, 10–11; 2Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and fordecoration (1Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones onthe high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on hisbreastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12,17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of preciousstones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).

Rocksand stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as arock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common(1Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12),hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless(Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone”describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumblingstone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble(Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faithin Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1Pet. 2:8).

Stork

A long-legged, long-necked, long-billed bird, over three feettall, that nests high up in trees or on ledges (Ps. 104:17). Thestork is a strong flyer (Job 39:13; Zech. 5:9), and two species, thewhite stork and the black stork, migrate over Israel (Jer. 8:7). Job39:13–17 could also refer to the stork’s care for itsyoung; the Hebrew word for “stork,” khasidah,may be derived from khesed, “kindness” or “faithfulness.”Storks are listed as unclean birds (Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18).

Teeth

OT law considered the loss of a tooth or an eye equallyserious (Exod. 21:24, 27; Lev. 24:20; Deut. 19:21; Matt. 5:38–39).Perfect, clean, white teeth are a mark of beauty (Song 4:2; 6:6).When nations or people destroy, it is with sharp teeth (Deut. 32:24[NIV: “fangs”]; Job 29:17; 41:14; Ps. 57:4; Prov. 30:14;Joel 1:6). The psalmist calls upon Yahweh “to break the teeth”of the wicked (Pss. 3:7; 58:6). Hell, described as a place of“weeping and gnashing of teeth” (Matt. 8:12; 13:42;22:13; 24:51; 25:30; Luke 13:28), graphically pictures the sufferingreserved for those outside the kingdom of God.

Tongue

The word “tongue” has several senses in bothTestaments. In the OT, lashon refers to the physical organ (Judg.7:5; Job 20:12; 41:1), the physical tongue that creates speech(2Sam. 23:2; Job 6:30), and the physical organ in reference toindividuals as they profess before God (Isa. 45:23; cf. Rom. 14:11;Phil. 2:11).

Theword “tongue” frequently refers to language (Gen. 10:5;Neh. 13:24; Isa. 28:11; cf. 1Cor. 14:21). Related to this, theword refers to speech as deceitful (Ps. 52:2), as speaking strife(31:20 KJV, RSV), or as that which praises God (35:28). The tonguesings (Ps. 51:14) and extols (66:17).

Thetongue is able to produce very powerful speech that can bring lifeand death (Prov. 18:21). To guard one’s speech is to betrouble-free (21:23). Soft and forbearing speech is persuasive andwins the day rather than aggravates (25:15). Flattering speech seemsfavorable but will be disregarded in the end (28:23).

Thespeech of God is a consuming fire (Isa. 30:27). The mute will havespeech when all things are set right in the eschaton (35:6).

Inthe OT, the word “tongue” is used in parallel withseveral other words. The physical organ is parallel to lips (Ps.12:4), mouth (Job 33:2; Pss. 10:7; 50:19), or throat (Ps. 5:9, wherethe tongue is the source of flattery).

Asimilar Hebrew word, sapah,has several senses, among them “lip” (and so also oftenof the edge or shore of a body of water), and can refer to thelanguage produced by lips. It is sometimes placed in parallel withlashon (Ps. 12:4).

Inthe NT, the word glōssa refers to the physical organ (Mark7:33–35) and language (Acts 2:11; 1Cor. 14:21[heteroglōssos]) and can refer to the miraculous gift oflanguages (Mark 16:17; Acts 2:4; 10:46; 19:6; 1Cor. 12–14).Luke also uses the word in the unusualdescription of the gift of languages coming on the disciples—tonguesof fire resting on each one of them (Acts 2:3).

Finally,James, writing in the style of OT wisdom literature, notes that anuncontrolled tongue—unbridled speech—is not indicative ofthe people of God (James 1:26–27) and is ultimately destructive(3:5–10). See also Speech Impediment.

Town

Cities, towns, and villages were essential parts of a commoncivilization pattern shared by the ancient Near East and the Bible.Towns and cities were designed to provide the basic needs ofsecurity, shelter, and sustenance to enable their populations toengage in a variety of social, economic, religious, and politicalactivities.

Theurban picture of the biblical world is complicated by severalfactors. The first is the large span of time covered in the Bible.The urban chronology of Scripture begins at the moment of the firstattempt at city building (Gen. 4:17) and ends with the revelation ofthe new Jerusalem, the city of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:2).

Moreover,the Bible is not concerned with providing a detailed commentary onthe expansion of city and urban life. It is true that several of thegreat cities of the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world arementioned in the pages of the Bible; however, many of the religious,social, economic, and political factors involved in the developmentof urban life are not identified or discussed. The archaeologicalrecord often suggests a more complex picture.

Inaddition, a wide variety of terms are used broadly andinterchangeably in the Scriptures to describe settlement patterns andsocio-urban structures. For example, the specific differences betweena city, a town, and a village are not clearly identified in thebiblical text. Normally, a city had a fortified wall or other type ofdefensive enclosure, while a town or village did not.

Furthermore,city status was not necessarily determined by size. Ancient citieswere much smaller. During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem coveredabout thirty-three acres. But by the time of Jesus it measured nearlytwo hundred acres. Jericho, the oldest city in Palestine, was nolarger than ten acres. The archaeological record suggests thatJericho was occupied by at least 7000 BC. Hazor, one of the largestcities in the upper Galilee, covered 175 acres. The dimensions ofPalestinian cities were minuscule compared to the great pagan citiessuch as Nineveh, Babylon, and Rome.

ArchaeologicalEvidence

Archaeologicalevidence suggests that some of the chief concerns of city buildingremained constant over time. Cities were planted along main highwaysor trade routes. Often a city sat at important crossroads orintersections. An adequate water supply was necessary, as were rawmaterials for shelter and industry. The site had to be easy to defendand surrounded by adjacent agricultural land sufficient to sustainthe population. All cities in the ancient Near East built walls andcity gates. Most featured an acropolis or citadel and a workingsystem of city streets. Many cities contained a sanctuary or highplace where individuals could worship.

Atleast four major phases of urbanization in Palestine occurred duringthe biblical period.

EarlyBronze Age II (3000–2700 BC).Although Jericho and other cities had their origin in theChalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age produced a significantexpansion of urban life. Cities in this period included Megiddo, Ai,Gezer, Arad, Jericho, and others. Larger sites protected byfortifications with gates are characteristic of this period. Temples,fortified citadels, and residential houses were found arranged alongstreets and thoroughfares inside the city. The water supply became acommunity concern, and steps were taken to conserve runoff water intolarge reservoirs or cisterns. Such urban planning presupposes asocial hierarchy in the differentiation of labor and need. Farmers,craftsmen, and traders, as well as priests and rulers, worked andlived side by side in the city.

MiddleBronze Age IIB (1750–1650 BC).In the second wave of urbanization, the Canaanites refortified andrebuilt older settlements such as Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, and Shechem.Other sites, such as Bethel and Beth Shemesh, were established as newsettlements. Distinctive walls, fortifications, gates, and culticarchitecture characterized this period. Mud-brick was a commonconstruction material. Larger city-states controlled agriculturalresources and ruled numerous villages and settlements within theirimmediate vicinity. These city-states often joined together inpolitical alliances. Cuneiform documents from Mari and Hazor providea glimpse into the social, cultural, and political life in the citiesof this period. This wave of urbanization began to decline by theLate Bronze Age.

IronAge II (1000–586 BC).Early Iron Age settlements developed alongside the declining LateBronze cities as rough camps, simple enclosures, and villages in thehighlands of Palestine. Later, during the monarchial period, some ofthe villages and cities expanded into full urban centers, followingroyal hierarchical and administrative blueprints. Cities containedadministrative buildings, enhanced fortifications and gates, newwater systems, and planned street systems offering systematicdrainage. Housing generally followed a typical pattern. Stone becamethe construction material of choice. Both the united monarchy and thedivided kingdoms of Israel and Judah established royal cities,administrative centers, fortified border cities, and fortresses.Urban life gravitated toward the upkeep of a central religious andeconomic royal administration.

Romanperiod.As a champion of all things Hellenic, Alexander the Great introducedthe Greek city, or polis, into the oriental culture of the Levant.This new type of city, with its theaters, gymnasia, statues, andcolonnades, served as a beacon of Greek civilization. Such citiesattracted Greek settlers, traders, and local natives (Acts 18:1–3,18–28; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). The Greek agora(marketplace) replaced the Palestinian city gate as the center oftrade and commerce. Sepphoris and the towns of the Decapolis wereexamples of this type of city in Palestine. The Romans imitated theHellenistic city plan but emphasized one main north-souththoroughfare (cardo) and east-west streets. Building activity inPalestine flourished under Herod the Great (37–4 BC). Herebuilt, expanded, and renamed many Palestinian sites, such asCaesarea, Sebaste, and the Tower of Antonia in Jerusalem. Herodradically changed the landscape of Jerusalem, rebuilding there on amassive scale not only the palace but also the temple.

OldTestament

Thecommon Hebrew word for “city,” ’ir, occurs 1,093times in the OT. English versions normally translate the word as“city,” but sometimes “town” is used. Thesame term is found outside the Bible in one of the Lachish lettersand as a cognate in several Semitic languages. The etymology of ’iris not clear, but it may be related to the Sumerian word for “city,”uru. The word may have originally designated a fortified or protectedplace.

Inthe OT, ’ir can be applied to a wide range of settlements,including villages, towns, and capital cities regardless of size orlocation. For example, Deut. 3:5 speaks of cities fortified with highwalls, gates, and bars in the same sentence with “rural towns”or “country settlements” [NIV: “unwalledvillages”]. On the other hand, a distinction is made between a“walled city” and a “village” in Lev. 25:29,31. In Num. 13:19 Moses specifically charges the spies with the taskof determining whether the Canaanite cities are fortified or morelike camps. Cities given to the Levites in Num. 35:1–8 alsoincluded the surrounding pasturelands connected with them. A numberof times the OT speaks of the fields associated with a city orvillage (Lev. 25:34; Josh. 21:12; Neh. 11:25, 30).

Citieswere also given special designations or names. Cities of refuge areso designated to provide protection for individuals who havecommitted accidental manslaughter (Num. 35:11; Josh. 20:2; 1 Chron.6:57). Jericho was called “the City of Palms” (Deut.34:3; 2 Chron. 28:15). Jerusalem was known as “the City ofDavid” (1 Kings 3:1; 2 Chron. 5:2), “Zion”(Isa. 33:20; Zech. 8:3; Heb. 12:22), and “the holy city”(Isa. 52:1; Rev. 21:1).

Twoother Hebrew terms are often translated “city.” The nounqeret occurs only five times in biblical poetry (Job 29:7; Prov. 8:3;9:3, 14; 11:11). The noun qiryah is found twenty-nine times. It issometimes translated “town” in the NIV (Deut. 2:36; Job39:7; Isa. 25:2; Jer. 49:25; Hos. 7:12). The etymology of either wordis uncertain, but both may be derived from qir (“wall”).In many cases qiryah functions as a synonym of ’ir.

InDeut. 2:36 and 3:4 qiryah is used to designate the towns taken by theIsraelites in Transjordan. Heshbon is identified in Num. 21:28 as the“town” (qiryah; NIV: “city”) of Sihon. Theword qiryah is also found in the names of several towns, such asKiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9) and Kiriath Sepher (Josh. 15:15). Hebronwas originally Kiriath Arba (Gen. 23:2; 35:27), and Balaam rode toKiriath Huzoth (Num. 22:39). Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. 14:5) andKiriathaim (Num. 32:37) contain a form of qiryah.

Smallercommunities were called “villages” or “settlements”(Gen. 25:16; Lev. 25:31; Deut. 2:23). Some of these were connected toa larger city or provincial center. The book of Joshua commonlyspeaks of a city or town and “its villages” (Josh. 13–19;cf. 1 Chron. 6:26). In addition, the Hebrew phrase “daughtersof” (i.e., settlements) is frequently used to identify smallervillages under the jurisdiction of a larger city and dependent uponit (Num. 21:25, 32; 32:42; Josh. 15:45, 47; Neh. 11:25–31).

NewTestament

TheGreek word polis occurs 163 times in the NT and is translated as“town” or “city.” Several sites are calledpolis: Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Capernaum (Luke 4:31), Arimathea (Luke23:51), Bethlehem (John 7:42), and others. Jerusalem is called “theholy city” (Matt. 4:5; cf. Rev. 3:12), “the city of theGreat King” (Matt. 5:35), and “the city of the livingGod” (Heb. 12:22). During his ministry, Jesus preached in thetowns of Galilee (Matt. 11:1) and Samaria (Matt. 10:5). In the bookof Acts, Paul served as an evangelist to the Greek and Roman citiesin the Mediterranean world.

Trees

Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).

Unicorn

The KJV translates as “unicorn” the Hebrew wordre’em,referring to a “wild ox” (NIV). The KJV wasfollowing the Vulgate’s Latin word unicornis (Pss. 22:21; 29:6;92:10; Isa. 34:7; cf. Lat. rinoceros in Num. 23:22; 24:8; Deut.33:17; Job 39:9–10) and the LXX’s monokerōs. Legendsabout this fantastic animal flourished in the Middle Ages.

Whirlwind

Elijah the prophet, at the end of his earthly career, wastaken up alive into heaven in a whirlwind (2Kings 2:11). TheHebrew word there behind “whirlwind” (se’arah)also describes the atmospheric phenomenon of Ezek. 1:4, the“windstorm”—the early impression the prophet had ofthe flying chariot cherubim, above which God was enthroned. Thus, Godcommunicates in a special way to these two prophets in thewhirlwind/windstorm; in both cases, this encounter initiated aclimactic event in their prophetic ministries: Elijah’s ended,and Ezekiel’s began. The same Hebrew word is used when Godspeaks to Job: “Then the Lord answered Job out of the whirlwind[se’arah]” (Job 38:1; 40:6 NRSV [NIV: “storm”]).God appears at times in wind and storm (e.g., Ps. 77:18; Isa. 66:15;Jer. 23:19; Nah. 1:3).

Willow

Shrubs or small trees with reddish branches that grow bybrooks and watercourses (Job 40:22; Isa. 15:7 [NIV: “poplars”]).Several species are common in Palestine, the most common being thePalestine willow. This is the willow in Ezek. 17:5, and not the“weeping willow,” which was introduced into Palestineafter the exile. The ease with which the willow (poplar) takes rootfrom a twig is used figuratively in Ezek. 17:5 (cf. Isa. 44:4).Branches from the willow and other trees were taken to make booths atthe Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:40).

Secondary Matches

The following suggestions occured because

Job 38:1--41:34

is mentioned in the definition.

Aldebaran

A constellation mentioned in Job 38:32. In Hebrew ’ayish,it is most often translated as “the Bear” (cf. ’ashin Job 9:9). It is the brightest star in the constellation Taurus.See also Arcturus.

Arabah

One of several major topographical features of Israel (Deut.1:7; Josh. 11:16). The Arabah corresponds to the Great Rift Valleyrunning north to south through the land. Situated within it is theJordan River Valley, which extends southward from the Sea of Galilee(Kinnereth) sixty-five miles to the Dead Sea (Sea of the Arabah). TheDead Sea and its surroundings are also part of it, as is the desertregion to the south, which extends 103 miles to the Gulf of Aqaba.Almost the entire region sits below sea level, with the Sea ofGalilee roughly seven hundred feet below, and the Dead Sea thirteenhundred feet below.

TheHebrew for “Arabah” (ha’arabah), where the term ispreceded by the article, refers to the whole or a portion of thisterritory (see Deut. 1:1; Josh. 12:1; 1 Sam. 23:24). Conversely,the plural form occurs in connection with two specific localities.The first, “the plains of Moab” (’arebot moab),lies north of the Dead Sea and east of the Jordan. Here theIsraelites encamped prior to entering Canaan (Num. 22:1), and Moabled Israel into apostasy (25:1–3). The second census was takenhere prior to the crossing of the Jordan (26:3–4). Mosesdelivered his final addresses on the plains of Moab and died in itsvicinity (Deut. 34:1). The second, “the plains of Jericho”(’arebot yerikho), lies opposite the first, west of the Jordan.Here the Israelites entered Canaan (Josh. 4:13). Here too theIsraelite males were circumcised and the Passover celebrated (Josh.5). Finally, it was here that manna ceased (Josh. 5:12). Much later,Judah’s last king, Zedekiah, was apprehended in the plains ofJericho while fleeing the Babylonians (2 Kings 25:1–5).

“Theway of the Arabah” (derek ha’arabah) occurs five times,once indicating a road leading from the Gulf of Aqaba (Deut. 2:8),possibly the King’s Highway (see Num. 20:17, 21). Elsewhere theconstruction indicates a course or direction (2 Sam. 4:7;2 Kings 25:4). Without the article, ’arabah is rendered“desert,” “wasteland,” or “wilderness”(e.g., Job 39:6), and the Arabah could be conceived of as a desert orlowland generally (Isa. 33:9; Zech. 14:10).

Incontemporary usage, “Arabah” applies exclusively to theregion south of the Dead Sea. See also Valley of the Arabah.

Beans

Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).

Bit and Bridle

A bridle is gear that fits over an animal’s head;attached to the bridle is a bit, a metal mouthpiece that allows oneto control the animal. The terms “bridle” and “bit”are used metaphorically in both Testaments, demonstrating some mannerof control (Job 41:13; Ps. 32:9; James 1:26). For example, James usesthis metaphor to challenge believers about the difficulty andimportance of controlling their tongue (James 3:1–12).

Bul

The Hebrew word bul has several nuances in the Bible, all ofwhich might be related. In 1 Kings 6:38 “Bul” is amonth. In Isa. 44:19 bul refers to part of a log that becomes anobject of worship, an “abomination,” an idol. “Bul”corresponds to “Bel” and “Baal” as a divineappellation. Job 40:20, in describing Behemoth, states that themountains provide the beast with bul. Although English versionstranslate this as “food,” perhaps it is another referenceto an idol, with Behemoth being a symbol for wayward humanity.

Bulrush

The bulrush or papyrus plant was a type of reed growing inmarshes or riverbanks, especially of the Nile. It was a basicresource for writing, fuel (Job 41:20), ropes (Job 41:2), and lightvessels (Exod. 2:3). It is also used as a symbol of God’spunishment of Egypt (Isa. 19:15) and the restoration of Zion (Isa.35:7).

Chambers of the South

The KJV rendering of a Hebrew phrase in Job 9:9 (so alsoNASB; NRSV; ESV). It probably refers to some astral phenomenon, sinceit is listed with other constellations (the Bear, Orion, the Pleiades[though these are also debated]). Some scholars identify it withsoutherly constellations generally, or perhaps with the southernzodiacal circle of stars. Another possibility is that it refers tochambers where wind, rain, snow, and hail were thought to be stored(cf. Job 37:9; 38:22). The NIV renders the phrase as “constellationsof the south,” and the NLT as “constellations of thesouthern sky.”

Chanaan

A region generally identified with the landmass betweenancient Syria and Egypt, including parts of the Sinai Peninsula,Palestine from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, and southernPhoenicia (modern Lebanon). Although there is some discussion aboutthe origin of the name “Canaan” and its meaning, the nameapparently arises from the primary inhabitants of the region prior toJoshua’s incursion into the land, since it is primarily used inconnection with the phrase “the land of,” indicating thatthe descendants of Canaan possess it. Because the identity of theland of Canaan was linked as much to its inhabitants as it was to anysort of fixed borders, the boundaries are identified in various waysthroughout the biblical text. Such descriptions vary from a ratherlimited area of influence (as suggested by Num. 13:29) to a largerland spanning an area from the Euphrates to the Nile (Gen. 15:18;Exod. 23:23). Because of its strategic position as a buffer betweenEgypt and Mesopotamia and between Arabia and the sea, it served as aprimary trading outpost and the location of numerous importanthistorical events both prior to and after Israel’s appearancein the land.

Inthe Bible, the geographical reference “the land of Canaan”finds primary expression, not surprisingly, in Genesis throughJudges. The promise to Abraham that his descendants would inherit theland of the Canaanites (Gen. 15:18–21) is the theological focalpoint of the uses of the term “Canaan” throughout thesebiblical books. Once that inheritance was achieved and Israel becamea viable state, the term’s use seems to serve the doublepurpose of being both a geographical marker and a reminder of thenature of its former predominant inhabitants. The prophets drew uponthe term to remind Israel of the land’s former status, both inits positive (Isa. 19:18) and negative (Isa. 23:11; Zeph. 2:5)connotations. The term is transliterated twice in the NT in therecounting of OT history (Acts 7:11; 13:19). One further connectionbetween Canaan and the perspectives communicated concerning it in theOT is the apparent association of the land with corrupt tradepractices. That is, while some believe that the word “Canaan”always meant “merchant” or some similar word, its use inScripture suggests that the tradesmen of Canaan were of suchdisrepute in the recollection of ancient Israel that the term becamea synonym for “unjust trader” (Job 41:6; Ezek. 16:29;17:4; Zeph. 1:11; Zech. 14:21).

History

Theproximity of Canaan to Egypt meant that from its earliest periods itfound itself beholden to the pharaohs of Egypt. The EgyptianExecration texts from the Old Kingdom era tell of Egypt’sinfluence over Canaan in the early second millennium. After theexpulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, the pharaohs of the New Kingdomasserted their control over the land. Most famous among these recordsis Thutmose III’s account of his defeat of Megiddo throughthe implementation of both cunning and skill. This same pharaoh wouldestablish a system of dividing Canaan and its inhabitants fortaxation and administration that would be so successful that Solomonwould reimplement the same system during his reign (1 Kings4:7–19). Even in the weaker days of Egypt following the NewKingdom, pharaohs such as Necho and Shishak and their successors thePtolemies would often seek to revisit the days of glory in campaignsinto Canaan.

Inaddition to Egypt, other outside forces found their way into Canaanand exerted influence on its development. The earliest settlers seemto have come from Mesopotamia, and Semitic influence is witnessed asearly as 3000 BC. In the period between Egypt’s control ofCanaan during the Old Kingdom and its later reassertion afterexpelling the Hyksos, Canaan witnessed a massive influx of Amoritesfrom the north and also incursions by the Hittites and the Hurrians.As Egypt’s power waned toward the end of the New Kingdom, thePhilistines came in from the sea and the Israelites from across theJordan. All these societies were absorbed into the Canaanite cultureor were themselves modified by the Canaanites. Israelite success inremoving mention of the Canaanites as an identifiable entity wouldnot be firmly established until late in the eighth century underHezekiah.

Thestory of Israel’s predominance in the area of Canaan begins, ofcourse, with the infiltration into the land under Joshua and persistsuntil the fall of the temple in AD 70 at the hands of the Romans.During that period, Canaan endured as a place of importance as astaging ground for controlling both Mesopotamia and Egypt andtherefore witnessed campaigns by most of the great leaders ofAssyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Of course, with eachcampaign came alterations in both the political and the culturallandscape of the land and reinforcement of the view that the area wasthe center of the world. Indeed, it is in Canaan, in the JezreelValley, that Scripture turns its focus for the final battle betweenGod and the forces of Satan at Armageddon.

Geographyand Climate

Geography.Though small in scope, the region of Canaan encompassed asurprisingly wide variety of environments. Within its topography onecould find perilous deserts, snow-capped mountains, thick forests,lush plains, coastal beaches, rugged hills, deep valleys, andseparate water sources full of both life and minerals. The Shephelah,or coastal plain, lacks any natural harbor areas that would have ledto the early exploitation of the Mediterranean in the south that isso well known in the northern areas of Phoenicia. It does, however,provide wide-open, fertile areas fed by the rain runoff from thecentral hill country, which allowed it to be a useful source offarming and civilization from a very early period.

Thecentral hill country is essentially a ridge that runs parallel to thecoast and undulates in elevation from the mountainous north to therugged but less elevated regions of the south. This ridge served as anatural barrier against travel from west to east, so it is notsurprising that important military towns such as Hazor cropped up inplaces where valleys in this ridge allowed travelers to move from thecoast to the inland regions as necessary to reach Mesopotamia fromEgypt. One such valley of significance through the history of theland of Canaan is the Esdraelon or Jezreel Valley. It provides a wideswath of land that moves from Akko in the west (  justnorth of the Carmel Range) to the Sea of Galilee in the east, withaccess points in the north and south. Within this valley weresettlements such as Megiddo and Hazor in earlier times, and Nazarethand Tiberias in later times.

Alongthe eastern edge of the central hill country is the Jordan RiftValley. The elevation drops dramatically from cities in the hillcountry, such as Jerusalem at about 2,500 feet above sea level, tocities in the valley, such as Jericho at about 1,000 feet below sealevel, within the span of about fifteen miles. The valley itself ispart of a much larger rift that starts in southeast Turkey andcontinues all the way to Mozambique in Africa. Waters from snowyMount Hermon and a couple of natural springs feed into the Sea ofGalilee and then flow into the Jordan River, which snakes its waydown into the Dead Sea. The lands around the Jordan River were oncevery fertile in the north and probably included abundant forests andwildlife. Toward the south of the Jordan River, one approaches thewilderness surrounding the Dead Sea, a region well known for itsmineral contents.

Thesouthernmost section of Canaan, known as the Negev, is an unforgivingregion with mountains, deserts, and interspersed oases throughout. Itopens up into the Arabian Desert to the east and the Sinai Peninsulato the southwest. Its primary cities of importance in biblical timeswere Beersheba and Raphia. As the gateway from Egypt to Canaan, theNegev played a significant role in biblical history.

Climate.The climate of Canaan played a significant role in its religion andhistory. It is generally recognized that climate change played arather momentous role in population movements by nomads, indestabilization of powerful governments, and in the capability, orlack thereof, of nations to participate in the trade that was at theheart of Canaan’s growth, spread of influence, and success.Within Canaan itself, because the natural water sources were on thewrong side of the central hill country, most of its water came fromrainfall. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of thediscussions that take place in both Canaanite and Israelite religiousexpressions concerning the power of their gods found utterance interms of a god’s ability to grant rain (see 1 Kings17–18). The rainy season began in October and typicallycontinued through April. The other months of the year witnessedlittle or no rainfall. Although in a temperate zone within which onemight expect high temperatures, the coastal plains were keptrelatively cool by winds coming in off the sea. The coastal mountainareas, such as Carmel, were the most likely to receive rainfall, sowhen they were without it, all the land suffered (Amos 1:2).

Cultureand Politics

Thehistory of Canaan begins with an archaeological record that travelsback into the first signs of human settlement anywhere in the world.Such early attestation exists within the confines of Palestine itselfat Jericho and Megiddo, both sites of natural springs that would haveattracted settlers. The pre-Israelite civilizations of Canaan arewell attested during the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC). Theirculture as represented in the art and architecture of the landdemonstrates a developed people who were metropolitan in taste andgifted in style. Furthermore, because of the placement of the landbetween Egypt and Mesopotamia and the numerous incursions by outsideforces throughout its history, Canaan reveals a people with a hightolerance for change and a willingness to absorb other viewpointsinto their perspectives and practice. Archaeological finds reveal amixture of Egyptian, Sumerian, Amorite, Hittite, and Akkadianinfluences in their literature, material wealth, and religion.

Thoughunified in terms of a worldview and religious expression, the peopleof Canaan were politically committed to independent expressions oftheir power and influence. The greater cities seem to have served ashubs around which smaller communities and cities organized andremained separate from each other. The Amarna letters of thefourteenth century BC reveal leaders who did not trust each other andwho sought the Egyptian pharaoh’s favor as they vied forposition and strength. As one would expect, different city-statesheld more sway in different eras. Ebla flourished in the period of2500–2000 BC and then again around 1800 BC. Likewise, Byblosflourished in the period of 2500–1300 BC. It is in the MiddleBronze Age (2200–1550 BC) that cities more directly involvedwith the biblical narrative started to flourish. For instance,Jerusalem, Jericho, Hazor, and Megiddo reached their height of powerand influence around 1700–1500 BC, and each of these ismentioned in various texts of the time that give us some insight intoCanaan’s role in the greater political history. It isUgarit/Ras Shamra, which flourished in 1400–1200 BC, however,that has granted us the greatest amount of textual knowledge andinformation about the religion and literature of Canaan.

Religion

Theexcavations of Ras Shamra (beginning in 1929), and the accompanyingdiscovery of its archive of clay tablets, granted modern scholars aperspective into Canaanite religion that had been hinted at in thebiblical text but previously had remained somewhat of a mystery. Thetablets themselves date between 1400 and 1200 BC. They reveal ahighly developed religion with identifiable, well-defined deities.These deities represent religious practice and thought in the regionthat go back to at least 2000 BC, and the Mesopotamian religions theyare dependent on go back well beyond that.

Canaanitedeities.Theprimary gods identified in the text include El, Baal, Asherah (atUgarit, Athirat), Anath (at Ugarit, Anat), and Ashtoreth (at Ugarit,Astarte). El was the supreme Canaanite deity, though in popular usethe people of Canaan seem to have been more interested in Baal.

Therelationship between the Canaanite use of the name “El”for their supreme god and Israel’s use of the same in referenceto its own God (Gen. 33:20; Job 8:3; Pss. 18:31, 33, 48; 68:21) issomething that biblical authors used at various points in theirwritings (Ps. 81:9–10; Nah. 1:2), never in the sense ofassociating the two as one and the same, but solely for the purposeof distinguishing their God, Yahweh, from any associations with thedescriptions and nature of the Canaanite El (Exod. 34:14).Practically speaking, the coincidence probably resulted from the factthat the Hebrew word ’el had a dual intent in its common usage,similar to the way a modern English speaker will sometimes use “god”as either a common or a proper noun.

Like“El,” the term “Baal” had a dual function inits use. Because the word means “master” or “lord,”the people of Canaan could apply “Baal” to either thesingular deity of the greater pantheon or to individual gods of amore local variety. Local manifestations included Baal-Peor,Baal-Hermon, Baal-Zebul, and Baal-Meon. The OT acknowledges themultiplicity of Baals in some places (Judg. 2:11; 3:7; 1 Sam.7:4) but also seems to allude to a singular ultimate Baal (1 Kings18; 2 Kings 21:3), called “Baal-Shamen” or“Baal-Hadad” elsewhere. The fact that Baal was recognizedin the Ugaritic texts as the god of the thunderbolt adds aninteresting insight to the struggle on Mount Carmel, in which onewould suppose that had he been real, the one thing he should havebeen able to do was bring fire down from the sky; but he could not(1 Kings 18). Recognition that the term “Baal” couldrefer to a number of gods or to one ultimate god may also help oneunderstand the syncretism that took place in Israel between Yahwehand Baal addressed by the prophet Hosea (Hos. 2:16). To the commonperson who recognized the multiplicity of the term “Baal”and yet also heard of his supremacy, the assignment of the name toYahweh and the resulting combining that would occur would seem anatural progression, though still sinful in the eyes of God.

Thesynthesis of Baal and Yahweh is demonstrated in Scripture as being atemptation from national Israel’s earliest encounters withBaalism. The events at Peor (Num. 25) demonstrate a propensity towardthis type of activity, but the confusion between Yahweh and Baalbecame strongest once Israel entered into the land. Gideon had asecond name, “Jerub-Baal” (Judg. 6:32), and the peoplethemselves worshiped Baal-Berith (“Baal of the covenant”)as an indication that they believed their covenant to be with Baal,not Yahweh. Saul, Jonathan, and David all had sons named for Baal:Esh-Baal, Merib-Baal, and Beeliada respectively. Jeroboam I madethe connection even more explicit in his setting of shrines at Danand Bethel with the golden calves that were common icons for Baal inthe era, but that he apparently viewed as being appropriaterepresentations of Yahweh. By the time of the prophets, suchconfusion evidently was entrenched into the very heart of both Israeland Judah; however, Yahweh was able to utilize the false assessmentsof his character to clarify his true character and ultimately bringIsrael back to him.

Asherahwas the wife of El in Ugaritic mythology, but apparently because ofBaal’s accessibility and ubiquitous nature, she was ultimatelygiven to Baal as a consort among Canaanites in the south. Apparently,her worship was also linked to trees, and the mentioning of “Asherahpoles” (Exod. 34:13; Deut. 7:5; Judg. 6:25) in Scripturesuggests that such a linkage had been stylized into representativetrees at sacred locations. Asherah had prophets (1 Kings 18:19)and specific instruments of worship in Israel (2 Kings 23:4) andbecame so ensconced in practice and thought that her form often wasreplicated in the form of items known as Asherim. The previouslymentioned synthesis between Baal and Yahweh seems also to have foundexpression regarding Asherah within Israel. At Kuntillet Ajrud afamous graffito reads “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah.”This example of the people granting a consort to Yahweh is yetanother instance where the biblical revelation is so distinct amongsurrounding cultures because of the absence of such imagery regardingGod.

Anathwas understood as both Baal’s sister and his lover in Canaanitemythology. Given her apparent replacement in the thought of thesouthern Canaanite tribes by Asherah, it is not surprising that theonly place we find Anath mentioned is in appellations, such as “BethAnath” (lit., “the house of Anath” [Josh. 19:38;Judg. 1:33]). She also seems to have played a role in the tone ofBaal worship in that she functioned as a goddess of both warfare andsexuality. Her portrayal in Ugaritic texts and in inscriptions fromEgypt suggests a lasciviousness that has become the definingcharacteristic of Canaanite worship and also seems to be at thecenter of the methodology implemented by Hosea to reach Israel, whichhad become ensnarled in a similar outlook regarding Yahweh (Hos.1–3).

Thedescriptions of Ashtoreth at Ugarit portray her in much the samelight as Anath. Some cultures such as Egypt and later Syria seem tohave even melded them together into one being. Whether this combiningwas a part of the Israelite conceptions is difficult to determine,although such a combination may explain why only Ashtoreth ismentioned in the biblical text as an individual deity and not Anath.In any case, Ashtoreth apparently was a primary figure in thecorruption of worship during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 11:5,33; 2 Kings 23:13).

Summary.By the time the Israelites entered the land, they found a religionthat was already well established and accustomed to absorbing variousviewpoints into its expression and practice. Additionally, they founda religion that catered to the more base and animalistic tendenciesto which all humanity is drawn since the fall. The commonality ofsuch practices among almost all ancient cultures serves as a potentreminder of the distinctiveness and power of the biblical worldview.The narratives, poems, and prophetic oracles of the OT demonstrate aknowledge of these beliefs and an acknowledgment of their place inthe lives of everyday Israelites, but they never demonstrate asubmission to them in their portrayal of the true God and hisexpectations of his people.

Cities and Urban Life

Cities, towns, and villages were essential parts of a commoncivilization pattern shared by the ancient Near East and the Bible.Towns and cities were designed to provide the basic needs ofsecurity, shelter, and sustenance to enable their populations toengage in a variety of social, economic, religious, and politicalactivities.

Theurban picture of the biblical world is complicated by severalfactors. The first is the large span of time covered in the Bible.The urban chronology of Scripture begins at the moment of the firstattempt at city building (Gen. 4:17) and ends with the revelation ofthe new Jerusalem, the city of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:2).

Moreover,the Bible is not concerned with providing a detailed commentary onthe expansion of city and urban life. It is true that several of thegreat cities of the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world arementioned in the pages of the Bible; however, many of the religious,social, economic, and political factors involved in the developmentof urban life are not identified or discussed. The archaeologicalrecord often suggests a more complex picture.

Inaddition, a wide variety of terms are used broadly andinterchangeably in the Scriptures to describe settlement patterns andsocio-urban structures. For example, the specific differences betweena city, a town, and a village are not clearly identified in thebiblical text. Normally, a city had a fortified wall or other type ofdefensive enclosure, while a town or village did not.

Furthermore,city status was not necessarily determined by size. Ancient citieswere much smaller. During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem coveredabout thirty-three acres. But by the time of Jesus it measured nearlytwo hundred acres. Jericho, the oldest city in Palestine, was nolarger than ten acres. The archaeological record suggests thatJericho was occupied by at least 7000 BC. Hazor, one of the largestcities in the upper Galilee, covered 175 acres. The dimensions ofPalestinian cities were minuscule compared to the great pagan citiessuch as Nineveh, Babylon, and Rome.

ArchaeologicalEvidence

Archaeologicalevidence suggests that some of the chief concerns of city buildingremained constant over time. Cities were planted along main highwaysor trade routes. Often a city sat at important crossroads orintersections. An adequate water supply was necessary, as were rawmaterials for shelter and industry. The site had to be easy to defendand surrounded by adjacent agricultural land sufficient to sustainthe population. All cities in the ancient Near East built walls andcity gates. Most featured an acropolis or citadel and a workingsystem of city streets. Many cities contained a sanctuary or highplace where individuals could worship.

Atleast four major phases of urbanization in Palestine occurred duringthe biblical period.

EarlyBronze Age II (3000–2700 BC).Although Jericho and other cities had their origin in theChalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age produced a significantexpansion of urban life. Cities in this period included Megiddo, Ai,Gezer, Arad, Jericho, and others. Larger sites protected byfortifications with gates are characteristic of this period. Temples,fortified citadels, and residential houses were found arranged alongstreets and thoroughfares inside the city. The water supply became acommunity concern, and steps were taken to conserve runoff water intolarge reservoirs or cisterns. Such urban planning presupposes asocial hierarchy in the differentiation of labor and need. Farmers,craftsmen, and traders, as well as priests and rulers, worked andlived side by side in the city.

MiddleBronze Age IIB (1750–1650 BC).In the second wave of urbanization, the Canaanites refortified andrebuilt older settlements such as Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, and Shechem.Other sites, such as Bethel and Beth Shemesh, were established as newsettlements. Distinctive walls, fortifications, gates, and culticarchitecture characterized this period. Mud-brick was a commonconstruction material. Larger city-states controlled agriculturalresources and ruled numerous villages and settlements within theirimmediate vicinity. These city-states often joined together inpolitical alliances. Cuneiform documents from Mari and Hazor providea glimpse into the social, cultural, and political life in the citiesof this period. This wave of urbanization began to decline by theLate Bronze Age.

IronAge II (1000–586 BC).Early Iron Age settlements developed alongside the declining LateBronze cities as rough camps, simple enclosures, and villages in thehighlands of Palestine. Later, during the monarchial period, some ofthe villages and cities expanded into full urban centers, followingroyal hierarchical and administrative blueprints. Cities containedadministrative buildings, enhanced fortifications and gates, newwater systems, and planned street systems offering systematicdrainage. Housing generally followed a typical pattern. Stone becamethe construction material of choice. Both the united monarchy and thedivided kingdoms of Israel and Judah established royal cities,administrative centers, fortified border cities, and fortresses.Urban life gravitated toward the upkeep of a central religious andeconomic royal administration.

Romanperiod.As a champion of all things Hellenic, Alexander the Great introducedthe Greek city, or polis, into the oriental culture of the Levant.This new type of city, with its theaters, gymnasia, statues, andcolonnades, served as a beacon of Greek civilization. Such citiesattracted Greek settlers, traders, and local natives (Acts 18:1–3,18–28; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). The Greek agora(marketplace) replaced the Palestinian city gate as the center oftrade and commerce. Sepphoris and the towns of the Decapolis wereexamples of this type of city in Palestine. The Romans imitated theHellenistic city plan but emphasized one main north-souththoroughfare (cardo) and east-west streets. Building activity inPalestine flourished under Herod the Great (37–4 BC). Herebuilt, expanded, and renamed many Palestinian sites, such asCaesarea, Sebaste, and the Tower of Antonia in Jerusalem. Herodradically changed the landscape of Jerusalem, rebuilding there on amassive scale not only the palace but also the temple.

OldTestament

Thecommon Hebrew word for “city,” ’ir, occurs 1,093times in the OT. English versions normally translate the word as“city,” but sometimes “town” is used. Thesame term is found outside the Bible in one of the Lachish lettersand as a cognate in several Semitic languages. The etymology of ’iris not clear, but it may be related to the Sumerian word for “city,”uru. The word may have originally designated a fortified or protectedplace.

Inthe OT, ’ir can be applied to a wide range of settlements,including villages, towns, and capital cities regardless of size orlocation. For example, Deut. 3:5 speaks of cities fortified with highwalls, gates, and bars in the same sentence with “rural towns”or “country settlements” [NIV: “unwalledvillages”]. On the other hand, a distinction is made between a“walled city” and a “village” in Lev. 25:29,31. In Num. 13:19 Moses specifically charges the spies with the taskof determining whether the Canaanite cities are fortified or morelike camps. Cities given to the Levites in Num. 35:1–8 alsoincluded the surrounding pasturelands connected with them. A numberof times the OT speaks of the fields associated with a city orvillage (Lev. 25:34; Josh. 21:12; Neh. 11:25, 30).

Citieswere also given special designations or names. Cities of refuge areso designated to provide protection for individuals who havecommitted accidental manslaughter (Num. 35:11; Josh. 20:2; 1 Chron.6:57). Jericho was called “the City of Palms” (Deut.34:3; 2 Chron. 28:15). Jerusalem was known as “the City ofDavid” (1 Kings 3:1; 2 Chron. 5:2), “Zion”(Isa. 33:20; Zech. 8:3; Heb. 12:22), and “the holy city”(Isa. 52:1; Rev. 21:1).

Twoother Hebrew terms are often translated “city.” The nounqeret occurs only five times in biblical poetry (Job 29:7; Prov. 8:3;9:3, 14; 11:11). The noun qiryah is found twenty-nine times. It issometimes translated “town” in the NIV (Deut. 2:36; Job39:7; Isa. 25:2; Jer. 49:25; Hos. 7:12). The etymology of either wordis uncertain, but both may be derived from qir (“wall”).In many cases qiryah functions as a synonym of ’ir.

InDeut. 2:36 and 3:4 qiryah is used to designate the towns taken by theIsraelites in Transjordan. Heshbon is identified in Num. 21:28 as the“town” (qiryah; NIV: “city”) of Sihon. Theword qiryah is also found in the names of several towns, such asKiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9) and Kiriath Sepher (Josh. 15:15). Hebronwas originally Kiriath Arba (Gen. 23:2; 35:27), and Balaam rode toKiriath Huzoth (Num. 22:39). Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. 14:5) andKiriathaim (Num. 32:37) contain a form of qiryah.

Smallercommunities were called “villages” or “settlements”(Gen. 25:16; Lev. 25:31; Deut. 2:23). Some of these were connected toa larger city or provincial center. The book of Joshua commonlyspeaks of a city or town and “its villages” (Josh. 13–19;cf. 1 Chron. 6:26). In addition, the Hebrew phrase “daughtersof” (i.e., settlements) is frequently used to identify smallervillages under the jurisdiction of a larger city and dependent uponit (Num. 21:25, 32; 32:42; Josh. 15:45, 47; Neh. 11:25–31).

NewTestament

TheGreek word polis occurs 163 times in the NT and is translated as“town” or “city.” Several sites are calledpolis: Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Capernaum (Luke 4:31), Arimathea (Luke23:51), Bethlehem (John 7:42), and others. Jerusalem is called “theholy city” (Matt. 4:5; cf. Rev. 3:12), “the city of theGreat King” (Matt. 5:35), and “the city of the livingGod” (Heb. 12:22). During his ministry, Jesus preached in thetowns of Galilee (Matt. 11:1) and Samaria (Matt. 10:5). In the bookof Acts, Paul served as an evangelist to the Greek and Roman citiesin the Mediterranean world.

Cook

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Cooked

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Cooking

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Cooking and Heating

In the ancient Near East the type of cooking and heating utilized within a household depended upon the family’s socioeconomic status and lifestyle. A nomadic or seminomadic pastoral lifestyle demanded portability; permanent ovens or heating installations would have been impractical. A stable urban lifestyle made possible the construction of more complex heating and cooking equipment.

Cooking within the Seminomadic Lifestyle

Seminomadic groups, such as Abraham and his family or the Israelites before the settlement of Canaan, probably used an open fire or fire pit. A campfire was kindled on top of the ground or on flat stones. An open fire of this nature could also be ringed with a small stone circle. Shallow holes or fire pits were also dug into the ground near the front of a tent or outside, in the encampment. Since tents did not have chimneys, the smoke from a fire would escape through the door. The seasonal climate dictated whether a fire was kindled inside or outside the tent.

Fires were ignited with twigs or kindling by friction or sparks (Isa. 50:11; 64:2; 2 Macc. 10:3), a skill learned during the early Stone Age. Once lit, the burning embers of the fire could be moved around, kept smoldering, and fanned into a blaze with fresh fuel (Isa. 30:14; cf. Lev. 6:13). Abraham carried some type of an ember or fire with him when he went to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:6). The “smoking firepot with a blazing torch” that symbolized God’s presence before Abraham may refer to a portable device for transporting fire (15:17).

Fuel for fire was gathered from the materials most readily available to seminomadic groups. Potential fuels included thorns and briers (Isa. 10:17), dried grass (Matt. 6:30; Luke 12:28), charcoal (John 18:18 NRSV), twigs or sticks (Isa. 64:2), wood (Gen. 22:6), and dried animal dung (Ezek. 4:15). Fire pits provided some means for keeping a family warm, as well as being used for cooking.

Cooking within the Urban Lifestyle

The sedentary urban lifestyle of the monarchial period provided the opportunity to construct permanent cooking and heating installations. In the four-room Israelite house, cooking normally was done in a fire pit or clay oven in the courtyard of the home. The baking oven ordinarily was located outside, but archaeologists have found cooking utensils and ovens in the central room of the house. This indoor oven also served as a means of heat during the colder wet season. The family most likely utilized the courtyard oven during the hotter dry season.

Egyptian and Mesopotamian reliefs provide illustrations of the structure of ancient ovens. Archaeologists have uncovered scores of examples of different types and sizes all across the ancient Near East. Small domestic ovens (Exod. 8:3) were made of clay in two basic forms. The first had an open top and was cylindrical in shape. It ranged from two to three feet in height and was about two feet in diameter. The second, about the same size, was more egg-shaped, with small openings at the base and in the top.

Some ovens were covered with a plastered layer of potsherds on the outside to improve insulation. They could be embedded in the ground or raised above it. The oven floor was lined with pebbles, and the fire was built upon it. Commercial ovens were larger and were concentrated in specific areas of a city (Neh. 3:11; 12:38).

Ovens and fire pits were used for cooking and heating in the home. Other hearths or heating ovens were employed to warm larger buildings or to perform specific tasks not related to food preparation. A large oval hearth was discovered in the central room of an Iron Age II house at Shechem. Jeremiah 36:22–23 speaks about a “firepot” or hearth used by Jehoiakim to warm his winter apartment. This hearth may have been a raised copper or bronze basin on a three-legged stand. A “fire basin” (NIV: “firepot”) is also mentioned in Zech. 12:6.

Cooking Utensils

Many types of pottery utensils, which were undoubtedly associated with cooking and eating, have been discovered in archaeological excavations in the ancient Near East. Although rare, metal and stone implements have also been found. One area in the tent or the home would be employed as a “kitchen.” A kitchen in the palace of Ramesses III is depicted on an Egyptian wall, and Ezekiel mentions the kitchens located in the new temple (46:24). Cooking and serving vessels included platters, bowls, chalices, jugs, juglets, and cooking pots. Storage vessels and grain pits also were needed to contain spices, oils, grains, and other foodstuffs.

Larger bowls designed specifically for cooking were in common use during the Bronze and Iron Ages. These “cooking pots” often were placed directly into the fire or on hot coals and were used to boil meat or make soups and other similar types of food. Iron Age II cooking pots from Palestine generally bore the trademark of the potter. Cooking pots had a short life and were replaced often. Because the style of these types of pots changed systematically over time, they have become very important in helping archaeologists date the particular level or stratum of a tell in which they were found.

The Cooking of Food

The type of food eaten by families also depended on their socioeconomic status and lifestyle. Food staples included milk products, wine, bread, and occasionally meat. Richer families could afford vegetables, fruits, dates, figs, and other less common foods. All types of households ate bread.

Grains. The most common grains used in bread making were wheat, barley, and spelt (Isa. 28:25). Wheat grew wild in Palestine, and there is evidence that seminomadic people stayed in one place long enough to cultivate small plots of grain. Grain could also be acquired in trade for other agricultural products such as goat’s milk or wool. Grain was winnowed to separate the chaff from the kernels (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17). Roasted grain was grain that had been “popped” in the fire instead of being milled (1 Sam. 25:18).

After being winnowed, wheat and other grains were ground initially in a hand mill. Hand mills, or querns, were of two types. The first was a simple device of two stones. The base, or “saddle,” was a flat, elongated stone that became curved through the backward and forward motion of the upper stone. The upper, or “rider,” stone was flat on one side and curved on the top to allow the user to grip the stone with both hands. The grain was placed on the saddle, and the rider stone was run repeatedly over it to grind it. This was considered menial work (Lam. 5:13). This type of grinding may have been assigned to the blinded Samson (Judg. 16:21).

The second, later type of hand mill consisted of two stone disks approximately twelve inches in diameter. The lower stone, or base, had an upright wooden stake at the center. A hole in the upper stone allowed it to fit over the base, and a handle on the upper stone was used to rotate it against the lower stone (Matt. 24:41). Grain was fed through the central hole, and the milled flour exited along the sides. The millstone mentioned in Matt. 18:6; Mark 9:42; Luke 17:2 is a larger example of this type.

Milling grain was a necessary task of the household (Jer. 25:10). Course grain was further milled into fine flour with a mortar and pestle. Course grain could be used to make boiled porridge or gruel. Finely ground flour was used in sacrificial offerings (Exod. 29:40; Lev. 2:4).

The flour was mixed with water and kneaded (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 28:24; 2 Sam. 13:8; Jer. 7:18), small amounts of leaven and salt were added, and then the bread was baked. Three methods of baking bread are mentioned in the OT: over hot coals (1 Kings 19:6; Isa. 44:19), on a griddle (Lev. 7:9; cf. Ezek. 4:3), and in an oven (Lev. 26:26). Leaven was withheld from the dough if the bread was to be made and eaten in haste (Exod. 12:39; Judg. 6:19; 1 Sam. 28:24). Griddle “cakes” were also made in this fashion (Hos. 7:8; cf. Ezek. 4:12).

Bread often was baked in different shapes. Thin bread was used to scoop food from a common pot (Matt. 26:23). Other breads were formed into loaves (John 6:9). In one man’s dream a round loaf of barley bread is described as rolling down a hill and striking and overturning a tent (Judg. 7:13). Both men and women baked bread (Gen. 19:3; 1 Sam. 28:24), and priests baked bread for ritual usage (Lev. 24:5). A king could afford to have men and women as professional bakers (Gen. 40:1; 1 Sam. 8:13). Professional bakers may also have served the larger urban population (Neh. 3:11; Jer. 37:21; Hos. 7:4) in Jerusalem.

Fruits and vegetables. After settling in Canaan, the Israelites made some additions to their diet. Foodstuffs grown in cultivated gardens were now available. These included foods such as cucumbers, melons, leeks, onions, and garlic (Num. 11:5). Some of these vegetables were added to stews; others were eaten uncooked. Vegetable, bean, and lentil soups were prepared in large cooking pots placed directly on the fire. Esau particularly enjoyed lentil soup (Gen. 25:30). Herbs and spices (mint, dill, and cumin) were now accessible as well (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23). Salt came from the Dead Sea.

Fruits too were grown and harvested. Of particular interest was the olive. Olives were crushed in a press to render oil. Olive oil was used in cooking and baking. It was mixed with fine flour to make bread (1 Kings 17:12; Ezek. 16:13; cf. Num. 11:8).

Meat. When a guest arrived or when a special occasion called for it, meat was added to the stew. Meat often was boiled (2 Kings 4:38; Ezek. 24:3–5). Spices were also added (Ezek. 24:10). Since the meat was cut up to boil, this method had the advantage of avoiding the problem of ensuring that the blood was properly drained out of an animal before it could be roasted (Lev. 17:10–11). Milk could be used in the stew; however, cooking a kid in its mother’s milk was prohibited (Exod. 23:19; 34:26; Deut. 14:21).

Meat was roasted over an open fire on a spit. Meat was available from flocks and through hunting. Abraham served his guests veal (Gen. 18:7); Gideon and his guests ate goat meat (Judg. 6:19); Samuel appears to have served Saul a mutton leg (1 Sam. 9:24). Contrary to ritual regulations, Hophni and Phinehas demanded meat for roasting (1 Sam. 2:13–15). Meat certainly was roasted as a sacrifice on the altar of the tabernacle and the temple. It also normally was roasted on feast days such as Passover (Exod. 12:8–9).

Fish were counted among the foods given to Noah and his sons after the flood (Gen. 9:2–3). The Israelites ate fish in Egypt (Num. 11:15), and fishermen plied their trade along the Nile (Isa. 19:8). Fishermen could hook, spear, or net fish (Job 41:1, 7; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 29:4; 47:10). In Israel, fish were taken from the Sea of Galilee or the Mediterranean. Jerusalem had a “Fish Gate,” where fish were sold (2 Chron. 33:14; Neh. 3:3; 12:39; Zeph. 1:10). The Phoenicians most likely exported several varieties of edible fish to Israel. Fish with fins and scales were clean, but those without fins or scales were not (Lev. 11:9–12). In Nehemiah’s day Phoenicians were selling fish to the inhabitants of Jerusalem even on the Sabbath (Neh. 13:16).

In NT times, the Phoenicians continued to import much of the fish brought into Palestine. The ministry of Jesus revolved around the smaller fishing industry on the Sea of Galilee. Jesus called several fishermen to follow him as disciples (Matt. 4:18). On a number of occasions Jesus helped his disciples to ply their trade by directing them where to cast their nets (John 21:6, 11). Fish were caught in dragnets (John 21:8) and hand nets (Matt. 4:18). After his resurrection Jesus ate fish with his disciples in Jerusalem and on the Sea of Galilee (Luke 24:42; John 21:9).

Fish became a staple of the common people (Matt. 14:17; 15:34). The fish used to feed the multitudes probably were salted. Fish normally were grilled over an open fire (John 21:9).

Crawling Things

The Bible is full of teeming creatures and swarming things.These creatures, insects, often play significant roles in the storiesand the events described in them. From the first chapter of the Bibleto the very last book, these flying, creeping, hopping, and crawlingthings are prominent.

Termsfor Insects

Insectsare described in the Bible with both general and specific terms. Inthe OT, there are three general terms for insects and twenty termsused to refer to specific types of insects. In the NT, two differenttypes of insects are referenced: gnats and locusts.

Thetwo most common general terms for insects are variously translated.Terms and phrases used to describe them include “livingcreatures” (Gen. 1:20), “creatures that move along theground” (Gen. 1:24–26; 6:7, 20; 7:8, 14, 23; 8:17, 19;Lev. 5:2; Ezek. 38:20; Hos. 2:18), that which “moves”(Gen. 9:3), “swarming things” (Lev. 11:10), “flyinginsects” (Lev. 11:20–21, 23; Deut. 14:19), “creatures”(Lev. 11:43), “crawling things” (Lev. 22:5; Ezek. 8:10),“reptiles” (1Kings 4:33), “teeming creatures”(Ps. 104:25), “small creatures” (Ps. 148:10), and “seacreatures” (Hab. 1:14). The other general term for insects isused with reference to swarms of insects, typically flies (Exod.8:21–22, 24, 29; Pss. 78:45; 105:31). Specific insects named inScripture are listed below.

Ants.Ants are used in Proverbs as an example of and encouragement towardwisdom. In 6:6 ants serve as an example for sluggards to reform theirslothful ways. Also, in 30:25 ants serve as an example of creaturesthat, despite their diminutive size, are wise enough to make advancepreparations for the long winter.

Bees.Beesare used both literally and figuratively in Scripture. Judges 14:8refers to honeybees, the product of which becomes the object ofSamson’s riddle. The other three uses of bees in the OT arefigurative of swarms of enemies against God’s people (Deut.1:44; Ps. 118:12; Isa. 7:18).

Fleas.Fleasare referenced in the OT only by David to indicate his insignificancein comparison with King Saul (1Sam. 24:14; 26:20). The irony ofthe comparison becomes clear with David’s later ascendancy.

Flies.The plague of flies follows that of gnats on Egypt (Exod. 8:20–31).Although the gnats are never said to have left Egypt, the flies areremoved upon Moses’ prayer. In Eccles. 10:1 the stench of deadflies is compared to the impact that folly can have on the wise. InIsa. 7:18 flies represent Egypt being summoned by God as his avengingagents on Judah’s sin. In addition, one of the gods in Ekronwas named “Baal-Zebub,” which means “lord of theflies” (2Kings 1:2–3, 6, 16). The reference toSatan in the NT using a similar name is likely an adaptation of theOT god of Ekron (Matt. 10:25; 12:24, 27; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15,18–19).

Gnats.Gnats are distinguished from flies in the OT, though the distinctionis not always apparent. Gnats are employed by God in the third plagueon Egypt (Exod. 8:16–19), while flies form the means ofpunishment in the fourth plague. The two are listed together in Ps.105:31 and appear parallel, though the former may be a reference to aswarm. Gnats were also used by Jesus to illustrate the hypocrisy ofthe Pharisees and the scribes (Matt. 23:24).

Hornets.TheBible uses hornets in Scripture as an agent of God’sdestruction. The term occurs three times in the OT. In eachoccurrence these stinging insects refer to God’s expulsion ofthe Canaanites from the land that God promised to his people. Thefirst two times, Exod. 23:28 and Deut. 7:20, hornets are used inreference to a promise of what God will do; the third time, Josh.24:12, they illustrate what God did.

Locusts.Of particular interest is the use of locusts in the Bible. The termor a similar nomenclature occurs close to fifty times in the NIV.Locusts demonstrate a number of characteristics in Scripture. First,they are under God’s control (Exod. 10:13–19). As such,they have no king (Prov. 30:27). They serve God’s purposes.Second, locusts often occur in very large numbers or swarms (Judg.6:5; Jer. 46:23; Nah. 3:15). At times, their numbers can be so largeas to cause darkness in the land (Exod. 10:15). Third, in largenumbers these insects have been known to ravage homes, devour theland, devastate fields, and debark trees (Exod. 10:12–15; Deut.28:38; 1Kings 8:37; 2Chron. 7:13; Pss. 78:46; 105:34;Isa. 33:4; Joel 1:4–7). Due to their fierceness, they werecompared to horses (Rev. 9:7). Fourth, locusts hide at night (Nah.3:17). Finally, certain types of locusts were used as food.

Moths.Mothsare referred to seven times in the OT and four times in the NT. Jobuses moths to illustrate the fragility of the unrighteous before God(4:19) and the impermanence of their labors (27:18). The otherreferences to moths in Scripture present them as the consumers of thewealth (garments) and pride of humankind as a means of God’sjudgment (Job 13:28; Ps. 39:11; Isa. 50:9; 51:8; Hos. 5:12; Matt.6:19–20; Luke 12:33; James 5:2).

Functionsof Insects in Scripture

Asagents in God’s judgment.Insects serve a variety of functions in Scripture. Most notably,insects serve as agents of judgment from God. The OT indicates howinsects were used as judgment on both Israel and their enemies.

Moseswarned of God’s judgment for Israel’s violation of thecovenant. He advised Israel that as a consequence of their sin, theywould expend much labor in the field but harvest little, because thelocusts would consume them (Deut. 28:38).

Solomon,in his prayer of dedication at the temple, beseeched God regardingjudgment that he might send in the form of grasshoppers to besiegethe land. He asked that when the people of God repent and pray, Godwould hear and forgive (2Chron. 6:26–30). God similarlyresponded by promising that when he “command[s] locusts todevour the land” as judgment for sin, and his people humblethemselves and pray, he will heal and forgive (2Chron. 7:13–14;cf. 1Kings 8:37).

Thepsalmist reminded Israel of God’s wonderful works in theirpast, one of which was his use of insects as a means of his judgment(Ps. 78:45–46; cf. 105:34).

Joel1:4 and 2:25 describe God’s judgment on Israel for theirunfaithfulness in successive waves of intensity (cf. Deut. 28:38, 42;2Chron. 6:28; Amos 4:9–10; 7:1–3). The devastationled to crop failure, famine, destruction of vines and fig trees, andgreat mourning. The severity of the judgment is described as beingunlike anything anyone in the community had ever experienced (Joel1:2–3).

Locustsare the subject of one of the visions of the prophet Amos. In thevision, God showed him the destructive power of these insects as ameans of judgment. Upon seeing the vision, the prophet interceded forthe people, and God relented (Amos 7:1–3).

Insectswere also used as judgments on Israel’s enemies. In the plagueson Egypt, insects were the agents of the third, fourth, and eighthplagues. The third plague (Exod. 8:16–19) was gnats.Interestingly, this was the first of Moses’ signs that themagicians of Pharaoh could not reproduce. Their response to theEgyptian king was that this must be the “finger of God.”There is no record of the gnats ever leaving Egypt, unlike the otherplagues.

Thefourth plague was flies (Exod. 8:20–32). Here the Biblespecifically indicates a distinction between the land of Goshen,where the Israelites dwelled, and the rest of the land of Egypt. Theflies covered all of Egypt except Goshen. This plague led toPharaoh’s first offer of compromise. Once Moses prayed and theflies left Egypt, Pharaoh hardened his heart.

Theeighth plague was in the form of locusts (Exod. 10:1–20). Inresponse to this plague, Pharaoh’s own officials complained tohim, beseeching him to let Israel leave their country lest it beentirely destroyed. The threat of this plague led to Pharaoh’ssecond offer of compromise. Once the locusts began to devastate theland of Egypt, Pharaoh confessed his sin before God, but as soon asthe locusts were removed, his heart again became hardened. Thus,three of the ten plagues on Egypt were in the form of insects.

Atthe end of a series of “woe” passages, the prophet Isaiahproclaimed God’s judgment against the enemies of his peoplebecause of their oppression. In the end, those who plundered willthemselves be plundered, as if by a “swarm of locusts”(Isa. 33:1–4; cf. Jer. 51:14, 27).

Insectswere also used as judgment on people who dwelled in the land ofIsrael prior to Israel’s occupation. Both before and after theevent took place, the Bible describes how God sent hornets to helpdrive out the occupants of the land of Canaan in preparation forIsrael’s arrival. This is described as part of God’sjudgment on these nations for their sins against him (Exod. 23:28;Deut. 7:20; Josh. 24:12).

Asfood.Insects also are mentioned in Scripture as food. Certain types oflocusts are listed as clean and eligible for consumption. The NTdescribes the diet of John the Baptist, which consisted of locustsand wild honey—a diet entirely dependent on insects (Matt. 3:4;Mark 1:6). The OT also notes Samson enjoying the labor of bees asfood (Judg. 14:8–9).

Usedfiguratively.Most often, insects are used figuratively in Scripture. They are usedin the proverbs of Scripture to illustrate wisdom. The sages wroteabout ants (Prov. 6:6; 30:25), locusts (Prov. 30:27), and even deadflies (Eccles. 10:1) both to extol wisdom and to encourage itsdevelopment in humankind.

Anotherfigurative use of insects is in the riddle about bees and honey posedby Samson to the Philistines (Judg. 14:12–18). As noted above,Samson ate honey (Judg. 14:8–9; cf. 1Sam. 14:25–29,43). Also, Scripture describes the promised land as a place of “milkand honey.”

Insectsalso are used to symbolize pursuing enemies (Deut. 1:44; Ps. 118:12;Isa. 7:18), innumerable forces (Judg. 6:5; 7:12; Ps. 105:34; Jer.46:23; Joel 2:25), insignificance (Num. 13:33; 1Sam. 24:14;26:20; Job 4:19; 27:18; Ps. 109:23; Eccles. 12:5; Isa. 40:22),vulnerability (Job 4:19), God’s incomparable nature (Job39:20), the brevity of life (Ps. 109:23), wisdom and organization(Prov. 30:27), and an invading army (Isa. 7:18; Jer. 51:14, 27), andthey are employed in a taunt against Israel’s enemies (Nah.3:15–17), a lesson on hypocrisy (Matt. 23:24), and an image ofeschatological judgment (Rev. 9:4–11).

ScripturalTruths about Insects

1.Insectsare part of God’s creation.Inview of all the uses of insects in Scripture, several key truthsemerge. First, insects are a part of the totality of God’screation. The very first chapter of the Bible uses one of the generalterms for insects as part of God’s creative activity on thesixth day of creation (Gen. 1:24). After God reviewed the creation onthat day, his assessment of it, including the insects, was that itwas “good” (1:25).

2.Insectsare under God’s control.Asecond scriptural truth related to insects in the Bible is that theyare under God’s control. In Deut. 7:20 God promised to sendhornets ahead of the children of Israel to prepare the promised landfor their arrival. Also, in Joel 2:25, when God promised to repairthe damage to the land caused by the locusts, he described them as“my great army that I sent.” Thus, the picture emergesthat what God has created, he alone reserves the authority tocontrol.

3.Insectsare cared for by God. A final truth regarding insects in Scripture isthat God takes care of them. Just as Jesus explained God’s carefor the birds of the air (Matt. 7:26), the psalmist explained thatall of God’s creation, specifically insects, “look to youto give them their food at the proper time” (Ps. 104:25–27).The conclusion of the psalmist is appropriate for all of God’screation: “When you hide your face, they are terrified; whenyou take away their breath, they die and return to the dust. When yousend your Spirit, they are created, and you renew the face of theground” (104:29–30). Thus, in the end, God creates, Godcontrols, and God cares—a lesson that all of God’screation shares.

Deluge

Recounted in Gen. 6:5–9:19, the flood is the event whereby God destroys all creatures except for Noah, his family, and a gathering of animals. The account is highly literary and God-centered. It opens and closes with Noah’s three sons (6:10; 9:18–19). Noah’s obedience is highlighted (7:5, 9, 16). God is the protagonist, and Noah remains silent.

Terminology. The Hebrew word for “flood” is mabbul, and the Greek word is kataklysmos. Outside of the Gen. 6–9 narrative and references to the flood in Gen. 10:1, 32; 11:10, mabbul occurs only in Ps. 29:10, probably a reference to the primordial water stored above the firmament in jars (cf. Gen. 1:7; 7:11). The LXX translates mabbul with kataklysmos in Sir. 40:10; 44:17–18; 4 Macc. 15:31. Hebrew Sirach and the Aramaic Genesis Apocryphon also use mabbul for the flood (Sir. 44:17; 1QapGenar 12:9–10). All four uses of kataklysmos in the NT refer to the flood (Matt. 24:38–39; Luke 17:27; 2Pet. 2:5).

The flood narrative. In Gen. 6:5–22, God observes the grand scale of human wickedness, determines to destroy all life, and selects righteous Noah to build an ark. God’s “seeing” is judicial investigation (6:5, 13) that counters the sons of God who “saw” (6:2), just as his pained heart counters humankind’s wicked heart (6:5–6). God’s second statement, “I will wipe from the face of the earth the human race” (6:7), is his judicial sentence (cf. 3:15–19), affecting all life in the domain of human care (1:28; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 36:6; Hos. 4:3; Joel 1:20).

The earth’s corruption and violence (Gen. 6:12–13) reflect a spectrum of evil that has despoiled a creation that was once “very good” (1:31; cf. 6:17; 7:21; 8:17; 9:11). God’s destruction responds to the moral corruption of the earth. The ark is a rectangular vessel designed for floating rather than sailing (6:14–15). Noah builds a microcosm of the earth to save its life. The boat’s windowlike openings and three decks reflect the cosmology of Gen. 1 (heavens, water, earth [cf. 6:16]). God makes a promise that Noah will survive and receive a covenant from God (6:18), fulfilled in the Noahic covenant following the flood (9:9, 11, 14–17).

Genesis 7:1–24 recounts the boarding of the ark and then the rising waters. Two numbering systems are used by the narrator in the flood narrative: one for dates of Noah’s age (day, month, year) and one for periods between flood stages. Both systems number between 365 and 370 days. The flood is portrayed as a reversal of the second and third days of creation. Watery boundaries that God once separated collapse (cf. 1:6–10). The rising flood is described in three phases: rising and lifting the ark (7:17), increasing greatly and floating the ark on the surface (7:18), and covering all the high mountains (7:19). Total destruction is amplified by reversing the order of creation—people, animals, birds (7:23)—with “all/every” occurring repeatedly in 7:21–23.

Genesis 8:1–22 recounts the disembarking and Noah’s sacrifice. Genesis 8:1 is the structural and theological center, with God fulfilling (=“remember”) his covenant promise for Noah’s safety. The ark rests on one mountain within the range in eastern Turkey (Kurdistan). The earth’s drying occurs as a process (8:3, 5, 9, 11, 13, 14), and echoes of creation reappear (e.g., “wind” [8:1; cf. 1:2]). Although the old curse is not lifted (cf. 5:29), God promises not to add to it (8:21). The flood has not reformed the human heart; it has only stopped the violence. God’s oath of restoration reaffirms the seamless rhythm of seasons that comprise a full year (8:22).

Genesis 9:1–19 recounts the restoration of world order. Since murder was part of the antediluvian violence (6:11, 13), God’s law recalibrates earthly morality (9:5). God’s second postdiluvian speech encodes his plan for the broader preservation of creation (9:8–17). “My rainbow” is God’s confirming sign (9:13). The meteorological phenomenon of the storm is now harnessed as an image of peace. The cosmic warrior “hangs up” his bow in divine disarmament. Humankind now shares the responsibility of justice with God, illustrated in Noah’s first speech of cursing and blessing (9:20–27).

Ancient Near Eastern parallels. Without literary dependence on the biblical story, parallels to the biblical account exist in the Akkadian Atrahasis Epic, Gilgamesh TabletXI, and the Sumerian King List. The exact relationship between the biblical account and these Near Eastern accounts is a debated subject. Perhaps they are variants of a similar story based on the same historical event.

Dinosaurs

The word “dinosaur” comes from Greek wordsmeaning “terrible lizard” and refers to very largereptiles, long extinct, that have been reconstructed and studied bypaleontologists. Their fossilized remains have been known fromantiquity but were considered rock formations that coincidentallyresembled parts of living creatures. The fossils were patently notmade of bone or organic material. Christians as late as theseventeenth century rejected the idea that fossils were the remainsof once living beings, since those species no longer existed, and thevery idea of extinction seemed anathema to the doctrine of creation,since it was unlike God to allow his creatures to die off.

Oncethe scientific community accepted that fossils were formed fromorganisms that were once living but are now extinct, the question oftheir relationship with human history became an issue. The consensustoday is that they date to a period long before human history. Butsome argue that this contradicts the biblical account of creation,which seems to imply that people and dinosaurs once coexisted.Evidence from the Bible has been culled to illustrate that the Biblewriters knew of such creatures before their extinction. For example,the KJV of Ps. 91:13 mentions a “dragon” (moderntranslations: “serpent”), supposedly a dinosaur. Job40–41 describes Behemoth and Leviathan, which seem larger thanlife and are identified as dinosaurs by some creationists. It isnotable that alternative interpretations are readily available. Manytoday take Behemoth to be the hippopotamus, and Leviathan to be thecrocodile. Earlier interpreters identified Leviathan with Satan.

Earrings

Precious stones appear in visions and theophanies in theBible. Examples include Ezek. 1:16; 10:1; Rev. 4:3. These preciousstones, also used in jewelry, were well known to people in theancient Near East and in the first-century Mediterranean basin.

Jewelryknown in antiquity is broadly divided into two groups: everydayjewelry and fine jewelry. Everyday jewelry, found commonly among thepeople, was made of materials such as bronze, iron, and bone. Finejewelry, on the other hand, consisted of objects crafted from gold orsilver and included costly and precious stones. Jewelry was worn bothby men and women as part of clothing. The ancients also conservedwealth with investments in jewels or used jewels as indicators ofsocioeconomic placing in society.

Mostgold jewelry had sheet metal as its foundation. This sheet metal wasshaped and/or decorated. One form of decoration, filigree, involvedsoldering wiring in a pattern on a background. A later form ofdecoration known as granulation used tiny grains of gold as asubstitute for wires. An additional method of decorating jewelry wasinlaying with colored stones, glass, or other precious items.Engraving was likewise used for decoration.

Jewelryin Antiquity

Jewelryhas been discovered in Babylon dating back as far as 2700 BC.Examples of jewelry from this era were found in cemeteries in thecity of Ur. Examples of ancient jewelry were likewise found incemeteries on the island of Crete, dating back to 2400 BC. Otherspecimens of jewelry come from the Mycenaean world around 1100 BC.Jewelry dating after 800 BC was of high quality. During this periodplaces such as Knossos on Crete and cities such as Corinth and Athensproduced beautiful gold work.

Bythe seventh century BC, the finest jewelry was found on the Greekislands and in Asia Minor. Jewelry in Ephesus was offered to thegoddess Diana, yet was also made for personal adornment. By 600 BC,jewelry became very scarce in Greece. This scarcity lasted for thenext 150 years. Archaeologists postulate that supplies of gold werecut off by the Persians. After the Persians were defeated during theClassical period, some of the finest gold work was produced. CapturedPersian treasures and exploitation of Macedonian mines made gold andprecious stones and metals highly accessible to the Greeks.Consequently, jewelry was readily available during the Hellenisticperiod. The Greeks incorporated a variety of stones in their jewelry:carnelian, chalcedony, amethyst, and garnet, as well as small pearls.Materials and inspiration for the Greeks for certain types of jewelrycame from newly conquered territories. In the early Roman Empirejewelry resembled that seen during the Hellenistic period. Ingeneral, during the Greek and the Roman periods, jewelry wasgold-plated and decorated with costly stones.

Certainwriters in antiquity documented well-known or costly jewelry andprecious stones. One Roman historian described the value of pearls asthe “topmost rank among all things of price.”Correspondingly, he wrote about two pearls owned by Cleopatra, queenof Egypt, known as the largest in history. The Egyptian Book of theDead, dating to around 1500 BC, makes mention of amulets in the shapeof hearts, considered jewelry by some experts. These amulets weremade of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and green feldspar.

Jewelryin the biblical world was known by different terms. An ornamentalcirclet worn singly or as multiples on one’s arms or legs wasknown as a “bangle.” This term, however, does not occurin the Bible. The abundant presence of bangles as artifacts inarchaeological digs is an indicator of their significance in everydaylife in the biblical world. Bangles were stiff ornaments ofrelatively heavy weight. Materials varied: bronze, iron, silver,gold, and so forth. Bangles were of three types: bracelets, anklets,and armlets. They were either solid, complete circles or circletswith two distinct ends. These ends had specific designs, oftenartistically crafted in the shape of animal heads, such as those ofserpents.

Ringslikewise were prevalent in the biblical world. Rings were worn in theears, nose, and around fingers and toes. Nose rings were popularduring the Iron Age (1200–586 BC). In addition, rings were wornon neck cords. Rings not only were worn as articles of adornment butalso were used as signets. Brooches or pins mostly were worn onclothing and were made of wood, bronze, iron, silver, or gold.

Amuletswere common as religious jewelry. Worn as divine protection fromharm, amulets varied from simple to ornate. Egyptian amulets oftenincorporated snake imagery or representations of Egyptian gods.Ancient Near Eastern amulets often were smaller than an inch wide.Greek amulets were colorful and crafted from stones. Christianamulets in the shape of the crucified Christ have also been found.

Althoughnot often worn individually, beads were the most prevalent jewelryitem in the ancient Near East. Beads were strung in bracelets, rings,circlets, and so forth.

Jewelryin the Bible

Manydifferent items of jewelry are found in the Bible, including earrings(Gen. 35:4; Exod. 35:22; Judg. 8:24–26; Job 42:11), bracelets(Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Num. 31:50), necklaces (Gen. 41:42; Ezek. 16:11;Dan. 5:29), nose rings (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12),rings (Gen. 38:18, 25; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36; 35:22; 39:14, 30;Num. 31:50; 1Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; Job38:14; Isa. 3:21; Jer. 22:24; Hos. 2:13; Luke 15:22; James 2:2),headbands (Exod. 13:16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18), armlets (Num. 31:50;2Sam. 1:10; Isa. 3:20), pendants (Judg. 8:21, 26; Isa. 3:18),and anklets (Isa. 3:20).

Variousarticles of jewelry in the Bible carried significance beyond mereaesthetics. Early in Genesis, bracelets were used to signify thedesire for covenantal marriage. When Abraham’s servantdiscovered Rebekah, a potential bride for Isaac, he gave her a nosering and placed bracelets on her arms to signify that God had chosenher (Gen. 24:22, 47). The bracelets and nose ring weighed over tenshekels. By placing the jewelry on Rebekah’s arm, the servantindicated that a marriage contract was sought. The high value of thejewelry signifies the high bridal price paid for Rebekah.

Earlyin the OT, jewelry was used in temple worship. The law designatedthat the high priest’s breastpiece and ephod contain preciousstones along with setting stones. The stones signified the majestyand holiness of God as his people worshiped in his holy temple (Exod.25:7; 35:9).

Loversflattered one another by comparing physical features to articles offine jewelry (Song 5:14) and admiring their fine jewelry (4:9). God’speople appear as a jeweled necklace when God gathers them (Isa.49:18) and are as highly esteemed as a bride adorned with jewels(61:10).

Biblicalauthors also challenged people’s desire for jewelry withadmonitions to seek godly attributes and gifts of God above jewelsand jewelry. Wisdom was to be desired above jewels (Prov. 3:15;8:11), knowledgeable speech above gold and jewels (20:15), and agodly spouse far above jewels (31:10).

Similarto the habits of most ancient cultures, Israelite kings and othernotable leaders wore jewelry of special significance. Like otherkings of antiquity, Saul wore armlets and a crown (2Sam. 1:10),which were intended to signify royalty and competence in militaryaffairs. Such jewelry typically carried insignias that denotedfeatures of national and royal identity. The victorious warrior inRev. 19 wears many diadems (crowns) in order to signify his unmatchedpower (19:12). He has more than one crown, and even more than sevendiadems, which is the number of diadems that the dragon has (12:3).

Attimes, jewelry carried negative connotations, especially whenacquired within polytheistic trends of society or else designed as anobject of worship. Even Jacob was found burying his jewelry thataccompanied his foreign idols (Gen. 35:4). Such instances lendcredence to theories that even early Hebrew faith wrangled withpolytheism and was infused with its many golden artifacts. Gideonmade an ephod from the sparkling plunder (rings and pendants) of theMidianites (Judg. 8:21). This ephod became an object of worship forthe Israelites and greatly offended God.

Kingshad signet rings that contained their own personalized engravings.The engravings were made by stonecutters who carefully worked thesmall semiprecious stones atop the rings. Throughout the OT, ringswere used to make impressions on official documents (Exod. 28:11;1Kings 21:8; Esther 8:8). Prophets used signet rings to sealprophecies that were of grave importance for the nation (Isa. 8:16;Jer. 32:10). Unique rings were designed by notable families in orderto signify the honor of the patriarch. Of special interest is theusage of the ring in Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son. Thering was placed on the returning son’s finger to show theradical grace of the father, who was willing to join his honor to hisson’s shame (Luke 15:22) as the son was brought back into thehousehold.

Incertain NT writings, women are admonished not to adorn themselveswith external jewelry (1Tim. 2:9; 1Pet. 3:3), as this wasa sign of materialism and immodesty. In Rev. 21, jewels appear inJohn’s depiction of the new Jerusalem: it is a city of majesticbeauty adorned with precious jewels, gates of pearls, and streets ofgold (21:18–21).

Famine and Drought

Famine was the most devastating catastrophe to an agrariansociety. Caused by drought, crop failure, or siege (Ruth 1:1–2;2Kings 25), it often was accompanied by disease or war, whichin turn brought adversity to many levels of society (Jer. 14:12;Matt. 24:7), including that of the animals (Job 38:41; Joel 1:20).

Dependenceon rainfall caused some people to stockpile in anticipation ofpossible famine. In Egypt, Joseph implemented a grain ration thatsaved the people, supplied seed, and filled Pharaoh’s royalstorehouses (Gen. 41:33–36; 47:23–24). Israel’s owntemple contained storerooms (1Chron. 26:15; Neh. 10:38–39).God used famine to encourage obedience from the Israelites (Deut.11:17; 28:33) and as divine judgment upon them (Lev. 26:14–20;Jer. 29:17–18).

Famineshad far-reaching results: price inflation, robbery, socialexploitation, agricultural collapse, migration, and even cannibalism(Gen. 12:10; 26:1; Ruth 1; 2Kings 6:24–29; Neh. 5:1–3;Lam. 2:20–21; 4:8–10). Therefore, faithfulness to God wasa particularly vivid reality (Pss. 33:18–19; 37:19), and God’sblessings on the nation included its being free from famine (Ezek.34:29; 36:29–30).

Josephunderstood that God sent him ahead to Egypt to save his family froman international famine (Gen. 45:5–7). For forty years Godtested the Israelites with hunger to rid them of self-reliance (Exod.16:2–8; Deut. 8:2, 16). Moreover, God sent afflictions onIsrael such as famine, drought, mildew, blight, and insects in orderto arouse national repentance (Amos 4:6–12). This meant thatsin and human suffering were tied to the land in interdependence(Lam. 4:3–4). Elijah’s contest with the Canaaniteprophets of Baal vividly shows the theological implications of faithand food: Yahweh would prove that he was in control of nature’sforces (1Kings 18:23–39; cf. Gen. 8:22). Even Elijah,however, required special divine care through this famine (1Kings17:1–6). For Amos, literal hunger funded his description ofdesperate spiritual hunger, “a famine ... ofhearing the words of the Lord” (Amos 8:11).

Jesusrelived Israel’s experience in his own wilderness testing andrejected the bread that he could make for himself (Matt. 4:3–4;Deut. 8:3). His success showed that scarcity and hunger are intendedto develop humility and trust in God, the divine provider (Matt.4:2), something that Israel did not learn very well. Jesus fed asecond manna to five thousand people to draw them to the bread oflife (John 6:35), but the crowds followed Jesus more for the foodthan for him (6:26–27). Famines are mentioned in the NT (Luke4:25; Acts 7:11 [historical]; 11:27–30 [contemporary]).

Jesustaught that famines would be a sign of his coming. Yet, withoutignoring physical food, Jesus highlighted the spiritual hunger andthirst of people (Matt. 5:6; John 4:14, 34; 7:37–38). Becauseeating is a powerful part of fellowship, heaven will merely removethe desperation of hunger, not the use of food (Gen. 43:34; Luke22:15–16; Rev. 19:9; cf. 1Cor. 4:11; Rev. 7:16; 21:4).

Gem

Precious stones appear in visions and theophanies in theBible. Examples include Ezek. 1:16; 10:1; Rev. 4:3. These preciousstones, also used in jewelry, were well known to people in theancient Near East and in the first-century Mediterranean basin.

Jewelryknown in antiquity is broadly divided into two groups: everydayjewelry and fine jewelry. Everyday jewelry, found commonly among thepeople, was made of materials such as bronze, iron, and bone. Finejewelry, on the other hand, consisted of objects crafted from gold orsilver and included costly and precious stones. Jewelry was worn bothby men and women as part of clothing. The ancients also conservedwealth with investments in jewels or used jewels as indicators ofsocioeconomic placing in society.

Mostgold jewelry had sheet metal as its foundation. This sheet metal wasshaped and/or decorated. One form of decoration, filigree, involvedsoldering wiring in a pattern on a background. A later form ofdecoration known as granulation used tiny grains of gold as asubstitute for wires. An additional method of decorating jewelry wasinlaying with colored stones, glass, or other precious items.Engraving was likewise used for decoration.

Jewelryin Antiquity

Jewelryhas been discovered in Babylon dating back as far as 2700 BC.Examples of jewelry from this era were found in cemeteries in thecity of Ur. Examples of ancient jewelry were likewise found incemeteries on the island of Crete, dating back to 2400 BC. Otherspecimens of jewelry come from the Mycenaean world around 1100 BC.Jewelry dating after 800 BC was of high quality. During this periodplaces such as Knossos on Crete and cities such as Corinth and Athensproduced beautiful gold work.

Bythe seventh century BC, the finest jewelry was found on the Greekislands and in Asia Minor. Jewelry in Ephesus was offered to thegoddess Diana, yet was also made for personal adornment. By 600 BC,jewelry became very scarce in Greece. This scarcity lasted for thenext 150 years. Archaeologists postulate that supplies of gold werecut off by the Persians. After the Persians were defeated during theClassical period, some of the finest gold work was produced. CapturedPersian treasures and exploitation of Macedonian mines made gold andprecious stones and metals highly accessible to the Greeks.Consequently, jewelry was readily available during the Hellenisticperiod. The Greeks incorporated a variety of stones in their jewelry:carnelian, chalcedony, amethyst, and garnet, as well as small pearls.Materials and inspiration for the Greeks for certain types of jewelrycame from newly conquered territories. In the early Roman Empirejewelry resembled that seen during the Hellenistic period. Ingeneral, during the Greek and the Roman periods, jewelry wasgold-plated and decorated with costly stones.

Certainwriters in antiquity documented well-known or costly jewelry andprecious stones. One Roman historian described the value of pearls asthe “topmost rank among all things of price.”Correspondingly, he wrote about two pearls owned by Cleopatra, queenof Egypt, known as the largest in history. The Egyptian Book of theDead, dating to around 1500 BC, makes mention of amulets in the shapeof hearts, considered jewelry by some experts. These amulets weremade of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and green feldspar.

Jewelryin the biblical world was known by different terms. An ornamentalcirclet worn singly or as multiples on one’s arms or legs wasknown as a “bangle.” This term, however, does not occurin the Bible. The abundant presence of bangles as artifacts inarchaeological digs is an indicator of their significance in everydaylife in the biblical world. Bangles were stiff ornaments ofrelatively heavy weight. Materials varied: bronze, iron, silver,gold, and so forth. Bangles were of three types: bracelets, anklets,and armlets. They were either solid, complete circles or circletswith two distinct ends. These ends had specific designs, oftenartistically crafted in the shape of animal heads, such as those ofserpents.

Ringslikewise were prevalent in the biblical world. Rings were worn in theears, nose, and around fingers and toes. Nose rings were popularduring the Iron Age (1200–586 BC). In addition, rings were wornon neck cords. Rings not only were worn as articles of adornment butalso were used as signets. Brooches or pins mostly were worn onclothing and were made of wood, bronze, iron, silver, or gold.

Amuletswere common as religious jewelry. Worn as divine protection fromharm, amulets varied from simple to ornate. Egyptian amulets oftenincorporated snake imagery or representations of Egyptian gods.Ancient Near Eastern amulets often were smaller than an inch wide.Greek amulets were colorful and crafted from stones. Christianamulets in the shape of the crucified Christ have also been found.

Althoughnot often worn individually, beads were the most prevalent jewelryitem in the ancient Near East. Beads were strung in bracelets, rings,circlets, and so forth.

Jewelryin the Bible

Manydifferent items of jewelry are found in the Bible, including earrings(Gen. 35:4; Exod. 35:22; Judg. 8:24–26; Job 42:11), bracelets(Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Num. 31:50), necklaces (Gen. 41:42; Ezek. 16:11;Dan. 5:29), nose rings (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12),rings (Gen. 38:18, 25; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36; 35:22; 39:14, 30;Num. 31:50; 1Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; Job38:14; Isa. 3:21; Jer. 22:24; Hos. 2:13; Luke 15:22; James 2:2),headbands (Exod. 13:16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18), armlets (Num. 31:50;2Sam. 1:10; Isa. 3:20), pendants (Judg. 8:21, 26; Isa. 3:18),and anklets (Isa. 3:20).

Variousarticles of jewelry in the Bible carried significance beyond mereaesthetics. Early in Genesis, bracelets were used to signify thedesire for covenantal marriage. When Abraham’s servantdiscovered Rebekah, a potential bride for Isaac, he gave her a nosering and placed bracelets on her arms to signify that God had chosenher (Gen. 24:22, 47). The bracelets and nose ring weighed over tenshekels. By placing the jewelry on Rebekah’s arm, the servantindicated that a marriage contract was sought. The high value of thejewelry signifies the high bridal price paid for Rebekah.

Earlyin the OT, jewelry was used in temple worship. The law designatedthat the high priest’s breastpiece and ephod contain preciousstones along with setting stones. The stones signified the majestyand holiness of God as his people worshiped in his holy temple (Exod.25:7; 35:9).

Loversflattered one another by comparing physical features to articles offine jewelry (Song 5:14) and admiring their fine jewelry (4:9). God’speople appear as a jeweled necklace when God gathers them (Isa.49:18) and are as highly esteemed as a bride adorned with jewels(61:10).

Biblicalauthors also challenged people’s desire for jewelry withadmonitions to seek godly attributes and gifts of God above jewelsand jewelry. Wisdom was to be desired above jewels (Prov. 3:15;8:11), knowledgeable speech above gold and jewels (20:15), and agodly spouse far above jewels (31:10).

Similarto the habits of most ancient cultures, Israelite kings and othernotable leaders wore jewelry of special significance. Like otherkings of antiquity, Saul wore armlets and a crown (2Sam. 1:10),which were intended to signify royalty and competence in militaryaffairs. Such jewelry typically carried insignias that denotedfeatures of national and royal identity. The victorious warrior inRev. 19 wears many diadems (crowns) in order to signify his unmatchedpower (19:12). He has more than one crown, and even more than sevendiadems, which is the number of diadems that the dragon has (12:3).

Attimes, jewelry carried negative connotations, especially whenacquired within polytheistic trends of society or else designed as anobject of worship. Even Jacob was found burying his jewelry thataccompanied his foreign idols (Gen. 35:4). Such instances lendcredence to theories that even early Hebrew faith wrangled withpolytheism and was infused with its many golden artifacts. Gideonmade an ephod from the sparkling plunder (rings and pendants) of theMidianites (Judg. 8:21). This ephod became an object of worship forthe Israelites and greatly offended God.

Kingshad signet rings that contained their own personalized engravings.The engravings were made by stonecutters who carefully worked thesmall semiprecious stones atop the rings. Throughout the OT, ringswere used to make impressions on official documents (Exod. 28:11;1Kings 21:8; Esther 8:8). Prophets used signet rings to sealprophecies that were of grave importance for the nation (Isa. 8:16;Jer. 32:10). Unique rings were designed by notable families in orderto signify the honor of the patriarch. Of special interest is theusage of the ring in Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son. Thering was placed on the returning son’s finger to show theradical grace of the father, who was willing to join his honor to hisson’s shame (Luke 15:22) as the son was brought back into thehousehold.

Incertain NT writings, women are admonished not to adorn themselveswith external jewelry (1Tim. 2:9; 1Pet. 3:3), as this wasa sign of materialism and immodesty. In Rev. 21, jewels appear inJohn’s depiction of the new Jerusalem: it is a city of majesticbeauty adorned with precious jewels, gates of pearls, and streets ofgold (21:18–21).

Gestures

In the Bible, gestures are made with either parts of the bodyor items, such as clothing and rings, directly connected to the body.For this reason, it makes sense to classify biblical gestures inrelation to the different body parts that are identified with thegestures. It is, however, challenging to know where to draw a line onclassifying a gesture. For example, a devious person is described inProv. 6:13 as one “who winks maliciously with his eye, signalswith his feet and motions with his fingers.” It is unclearwhether this is a single gesture or multiple ones, and whether allsignify different things or the same thing.

Head

Gesturesthat relate to the head range from simple head motions to semiviolentacts such as hair pulling. Simple head motions include lifting ofone’s head in honor (Gen. 40:13), bowing one’s head inmourning (Ps. 35:14), tossing one’s head in mockery andderision (2Kings 19:21), and shaking one’s head as insult(Ps. 22:7; Mark 15:29).

Acommon action is the shaving of the head, which can be forpurification (Lev. 14:8–9; Num. 6:9; 8:7 [includes all bodyhair]), mourning (Deut. 21:11–13; Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer.16:6; 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; Amos 8:10; Mic. 1:16), remorse (Jer.41:5), or shaming (Jer. 2:16). However, priests are forbidden fromshaving their heads even in mourning (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20), whilethe high priest is to wear a turban on his head during sacrificialduties (Exod. 29:6).

Anointingof the head is done when a priest or king is installed (Exod. 29:7;Ps. 23:5) or simply as a sign of God’s goodness and blessing ona person (Eccles. 9:8). Blessing may also involve placing a hand onthe head of the person being blessed (Gen. 48:14–18; Exod.29:19), while the same gesture on the head of sacrificial animals isa symbolic means of transferring sin (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24,29, 33; 8:18, 22).

Inthe OT, a woman’s head can be shaved in mourning (Deut.21:12–13; cf. Jer. 47:5), but in the NT, a shaved head can be acause for disgrace (1Cor. 11:5–6).

Face.Facial gestures range from expressions to actions such as touching orcovering the face. A face can be downcast in anger (Gen. 4:5–6)or bowed to the ground in honor (Gen. 48:12), in dejection (Josh.7:6), in humility (Ruth 2:10), in worship (2Chron. 20:18; Ps.138:2), in subjection, supplication, reverence (1Sam. 20:41;25:41; 28:14; 2Sam. 14:4, 22; 18:28; 24:20; 1Kings 1:23;1Chron. 21:20), or in dread (e.g., Moses before Yahweh [Exod.3:6]).

Theface can be covered or veiled as an indication of uncleanness (Lev.13:45), in grief/mourning (2Sam. 19:4; Ezek. 24:17), inresignation (1Kings 19:13), with intent to deceive in adultery(Job 24:15), or in horror of judgment (Esther 7:8; Ezek. 12:6, 12).It can also be buried in the dust in remorse (Lam. 3:29).

Godcan be described as hiding or turning away his face againstwickedness and evil (Deut. 31:18; 32:20; Ps. 34:16; Isa. 8:17; Jer.33:5; Ezek. 7:22; 15:7; 20:46; 21:2) or in an act of withholdingblessings (Job 13:15; Pss. 10:1; 13:1; 27:9; 30:7; 34:16; Isa. 54:8;59:2; 64:7). God can also turn his face toward a place in judgment(Ezek. 4:3, 7; 6:2). In 1Sam. 5:3–4 the idol of thePhilistine god Dagon falls facedown before the ark of the covenant,apparently overpowered by Yahweh.

Actsof humiliation or dishonor can involve spitting in the face (Num.12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10; Isa. 50:6), slapping the face(1Kings 22:24; 2Chron. 18:23; Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Mic.5:1), pulling a skirt up over someone’s face in shamingjudgment (Jer. 13:26; Nah. 3:5), and hooking and dragging someone bythe nose (2Kings 19:28). Although being struck on the cheek ishumiliating, Jesus instructs his disciples to “turn the othercheek” as a sign of resistance to violence (Matt. 5:39; Luke6:29).

Onecan lift one’s face in worship (2Kings 20:2; Job 22:26;Isa. 38:2) or in confidence (Job 11:15) and can fail to lift it inshame and disgrace (Ezra 9:6). Although the shaving of beards inmourning is common practice (Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37),the forced shaving of beards is an act of shaming and insulting(2Sam. 10:4; 1Chron. 19:4–5; Isa. 7:20; 50:6).

Eyes.Winking the eye is perceived as an evil, deceptive, or malicious act(Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30). Eyes can be lifted up in worship andexpectation (Pss. 121:1; 123:1).

Mouth.Pursed lips can characterize an evil person (Prov. 16:30), while ahand can be clapped over the mouth in awe and submission (Job 21:5;40:4). Psalm 72:9 looks to the righteous king before whom the deserttribes will bow and whose “enemies lick the dust” indefeat.

Ears.An Israelite slave for life is to have a hole punched through his orher earlobe, held against a doorpost, with an awl (Exod. 21:6; Deut.15:17). Blood is sprinkled on the lobe of the right ear forpurification (Exod. 29:20; Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17), whilesupplication can be described as asking for the turning of an ear(2Kings 19:16; Ps. 31:2). Turning one’s ear signifiespaying attention or taking something to heart (Ps. 49:4; Prov. 4:20;5:13).

Neck.The neck can be adorned (Song 1:10) as a sign of pride and honor(Gen. 41:42; Judg. 5:30; Prov. 1:9; Ezek. 16:11) or outstretched inarrogance (Ps. 75:5 TNIV: “Do not lift your horns againstheaven; do not speak with outstretched neck”). Jeremiah put ayoke on his neck as a prophetic sign of the approaching Babylonianconquest (Jer. 27–28). While putting someone’s neck in ayoke is an act of triumphal conquest (Ps. 105:18), stepping on theneck of a subdued enemy is an act of subjugation and humiliation(Josh. 10:24).

Body

Nakednessin public is considered shameful (Gen. 9:22–23; Nah. 3:5; Rev.3:18), so that it is sometimes pictured as part of divine judgment(Deut. 28:48; Isa. 47:2–3; Lam. 1:8; Mic. 1:11) or as a sign ofpromiscuity (Isa. 57:8; Ezek. 16:36). An unkempt body can be a signof mourning, as it is for Mephibosheth (2Sam. 19:24). A certainkind of body covering is a sign of marriage proposal or protection(Ezek. 16:8; 23:18; Hos. 2:9). Body dismembering, even in war, is anact of humiliation (2Sam. 4:12).

Chest.In self-mortification, one can pound one’s chest in mourning(Ezek. 21:12) or in remorse (Jer. 31:19; Luke 18:13). The breasts ofsacrificial animals are waved before God as a “wave offering”before being eaten (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 7:30; Num. 6:20).

Hand,arm.Hand gestures include motions such as lifting hands in worship,clapping hands in joy, and clapping a hand over one’s mouth inawe. The expression “outstretched arm” (Exod. 6:6; Deut.4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8; 1Kings 8:42; 2Kings17:36; 2Chron. 6:32; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 21:5; 27:5; 32:17, 21;Ezek. 20:33–34) indicates power, might, strength. It is oftenused of God to indicate his ability to defeat powerful armies andenemies. God is implored by the psalmist to lift his hand and act forthe sake of the righteous (Ps. 10:12).

Sincethe right hand is the hand of power, the act of sitting at the righthand indicates being favored (1Kings 2:19; Ps. 110:1; Matt.22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2;1Pet. 3:22). When taking an oath, one places a hand under thethigh/crotch (Gen. 24:2; 47:29), most likely the right hand (see Gen.48:14, 17–18; Lev. 8:23; 14:14).

Clappingthe hands can be a sign of awe (Ezek. 6:11), malice, or remorse(25:6), while a bared arm can be a sign of judgment (4:7). Job clapshis hand over his mouth in awe of God and in submission andrepentance (Job 40:4–5).

Handscan be lifted in worship (1Kings 8:22; 1Tim. 2:8), tobeseech (Ps. 28:2), to protect and bless (Ps. 10:12), in an oath(Deut. 32:40), or to harm (Exod. 24:11; 1Sam. 24:6, 10;2Sam.1:14; 18:12).

Pilatewashes his hands to proclaim his innocence over the death of Jesus(Matt. 27:24), while 1Pet. 5:6 urges believers to humblethemselves “under God’s mighty hand,” so that indue time they will be lifted up.

Buttocks.Exposure of the buttocks can serve as a humiliating insult andprovocation, as happens to David’s men (2Sam. 10:4;1Chron. 19:4) and Egyptian and Cushite captives (Isa. 20:4).

Leg.The leg or thigh is often a euphemism for the male reproductiveorgans, so that putting one’s hand under a thigh in oath (Gen.24:2; 47:29) may involve actually grabbing the genitalia. Animalthighs are waved to God in offering before being consumed (Lev. 9:21;10:14; Num. 6:20), while oaths administered to uncover adultery causea guilty woman’s thighs to waste (Num. 5:2–27).

Themost common gesture involving the knee is bowing, in worship orreverence (Deut. 33:3; Isa. 45:23; Rom. 11:4; 14:11; Phil. 2:10), indefeat (2Sam. 22:40; Ps. 18:38; Isa. 60:14), in distress (Ps.57:6), or in respect (1Kings 1:31). In what seems to be asomewhat awkward position, Elijah puts his face between his knees inprayer (1Kings 18:42).

Feet.Gestures involving the feet are probably the most common gestures inthe Bible. Feet can be washed in hospitality (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32;43:24; 1Sam. 25:41), in ablution (Exod. 30:19, 21; 40:31), orin supplication (1Sam. 25:41). Feet can be bathed in oil as ablessing (Deut. 33:24), uncovered in marriage proposals (Ezek. 16:8;cf. Ruth 3:4, 7), and stamped in remorse (Ezek. 25:6), and sandalscan be removed from them in honor (Exod. 3:1–10) or disgrace(Deut. 25:9). The heavenly seraphs cover their feet in supplicationbefore the throne of God (Isa. 6:2), while the feet of humans cansignal deception (Prov. 6:13).

Enemiescan be placed under one’s feet in subjugation (1Kings5:3; Pss. 8:6; 18:39; 45:5; 47:3; 110:1; Mal. 4:3; Rom. 16:20), havetheir feet shackled or ensnared (Job 13:27; 33:11; Pss. 25:15;105:18), and be forced to lick the feet of victors in humiliation anddefeat (Isa. 49:23). The righteous will bathe their feet in the bloodof their enemies in revenge (Pss. 58:10; 68:23).

Thoseoverwhelmed can grovel at the feet of the powerful (2Kings4:27, 37; Esther 8:3; Matt. 28:9; Mark 5:33; 7:25; Acts 10:25), whilethose emboldened can rise to their feet in confidence (Ezek. 2:1–2;3:24; Dan. 8:18).

Inthe NT, dust can be shaken off one’s feet as an indication ofdivine judgment (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5), even as lying ata person’s feet is a recognition of authority/submission (Matt.15:30; Mark 5:33; Luke 8:28, 35, 41, 47; 10:39; 17:16; Acts 4:37;5:2). A woman publicly washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, wipesthem with her hair, and kisses and perfumes them in what seems an actof love and repentance; but Jesus indicates that she has prepared hisbody for burial (Luke 7:38–46; John 11:2; 12:3). Jesus washeshis disciples’ feet as instruction on servanthood anddiscipleship (John 13:5–14).

Fingers,Toes.Different fingers seem to have different roles assigned them. Afinger sprinkles blood in cleansing (Lev. 4:6, 17, 25, 30, 34; 8:15;9:9; 14:16; 16:14, 19; Num. 19:4), while blood on the tip of theright thumb and on the right big toe is for cleansing (Exod. 29:20;Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17, 25, 28).

Onewears a signet ring as a sign of power (Esther 3:10) or a gesture ofrestoration and forgiveness (Luke 15:22). But fingers can also motionin deception (Prov. 6:13) or point in blame (Isa. 58:9). Jesus writeswith his finger on the ground, apparently as a gesture ofindifference to those pointing accusing fingers (John 8:6).

Clothesand Shoes

Garments.Garments attain significance as they are related to specificemotions. Wearing sackcloth and ashes in mourning is common (Gen.37:34; Ezek. 7:18; 2Sam. 3:31), while ripping garments inmourning is also frequently attested (Gen. 37:34; 44:13; Lev. 10:6;21:10; Josh. 7:6; 2Sam. 1:11; 3:31; 13:31; 1Kings 21:27;2Kings 2:12; 19:1; Esther 4:1; Isa. 32:11; 37:1; Jer. 41:5).

Rippingsomeone’s clothing to expose nakedness (Ezek. 16:39; 2Sam.10:4) or pulling a person’s skirts up over the face (Jer.13:26) is an act of shaming or insulting. But tearing one’sclothes off can be a sign of fury (Matt. 26:65). Persons withdefiling diseases are expected to warn off others by wearing tornclothes and shouting, “Unclean! Unclean!” (Lev. 13:45).

Bylaying their clothes at Saul’s feet, the crowd may beacknowledging his authority in the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58).

Sandals.A woman can remove a man’s sandal in contempt (Deut. 25:5–10),while a sandal can be removed by a kinsman-redeemer to indicategiving up a right or as a transfer of property (Ruth 4:7–8). Asandal can also be removed in mourning (Ezek. 24:17) or be cast overa piece of land to claim ownership (Pss. 60:8; 108:9).

PropheticGestures

Propheticgestures in the OT are mostly concerned with the call to repentanceand approaching judgments upon failure to heed the warning. Jeremiahputs a yoke on his neck (Jer. 27–28; cf. Deut. 28:48), Ezekielcooks with dung (Ezek. 4:12) and sleeps on his left side for 390 daysand then on his right side for 40 days (4:5–6), Isaiah stripsoff his clothing (Isa. 20:2–3; 32:11), and Hosea marries anunfaithful wife (Hos. 1:1–3).

Inthe NT, Jesus cleanses the temple as an act of symbolic judgment(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). He also breaks bread and drinkswine (Matt. 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30, 35; Acts 2:46;20:11; 27:35; 1Cor. 11:24–25) and washes his disciples’feet (John 13:1–13), thereby establishing symbolic Christianpractices.

Host of Heaven

A KJV phrase used to describe the heavenly bodies or heavenlybeings. The NIV prefers “starry host(s),” “multitudesof heaven,” or “stars in the heavens/sky,” but“host of the heavens” does occur in Dan. 8:10. The Hebrewphrase, tseba’ hashamayim, means literally “army of theheavens.” The connection between the celestial elements and anarmy comes in conjunction with God’s role as the commander ofthe Israelite forces (Josh. 5:13–15; Judg. 5:23). There aretimes when the Bible portrays the celestial elements as part of God’smilitary retinue, fighting on his behalf. The stars fight from heavenagainst Sisera (Judg. 5:20), and in the Israelites’ battleagainst the Amorites, the sun and the moon are commanded to standstill (Josh. 10:12–13; cf. Hab. 3:11). Based on these passages,the phrase may have had some military background, but it is alsounderstood in other ways.

Perhapsone of the more enigmatic uses of the phrase occurs in 1Kings22:19 (cf. 2Chron. 18:18; NIV: “multitudes of heaven”),where it describes God’s council. There are other biblicalphrases used with more frequency to describe the heavenly councilsurrounding God. Other names for these beings include the “seraphim”of Isa. 6:2 and the “sons of God” in Job 1:6; 2:1; Pss.29:1; 89:6. The connection between God’s council and thecelestial elements likely comes, as noted above, through the heavenlybodies’ association with God in battle. Further solidifyingthis connection is Job 38:7, where the “sons of God”parallel the “morning stars.” Exactly what these heavenlybeings are is debated, and many interpreters suggest the answer liesin the polytheistic context of Israel’s neighbors. Anotherpossible explanation is to view these beings as the messengers orangels of God. The Bible portrays them as inferior beings (Deut.3:24; 10:17; Jer. 10:6), and they function to serve and worshipYahweh (Pss. 29:1; 103:21; 148:2–3; Isa. 6:2). The angels whoappear to the shepherds at Jesus’ birth are described as the“heavenly host” (Luke 2:13).

Thelast and most frequent use of the phrase “host of heaven”is to describe a condemned object of Israelite worship. It is likelythat from their association with God’s council, these celestialelements gained an independent status and were worshiped apart fromGod. At times the “host of heaven” appears to refer tothe stars alone; the NIV therefore translates it as “stars inthe sky” (Deut. 17:3; Jer. 33:22; cf. Jer. 8:2) or “starryhosts” (2Kings 23:5). At other times the phrase refers tothe totality of the heavenly bodies (Deut. 4:19 [NIV: “heavenlyarray”]; cf. 2Kings 21:3, 5). Based on the distributionof the phrase, and its occurrence primarily in documents narratingthe Assyrian period (2Kings 17:16; 21:3, 5; 23:4–5; Jer.19:13; Zeph. 1:5), there is likely a direct correlation between theworship of the host of heaven and Israel’s Assyrian vassalagein the seventh century BC. The extent of Assyrian impact on Israelitereligion is debated, but it is likely that astral worship—thatis, worship of the starry hosts—flourished in this period dueto the influence of the Assyrians, a culture entrenched in worship ofthe astral powers.

Insects

The Bible is full of teeming creatures and swarming things.These creatures, insects, often play significant roles in the storiesand the events described in them. From the first chapter of the Bibleto the very last book, these flying, creeping, hopping, and crawlingthings are prominent.

Termsfor Insects

Insectsare described in the Bible with both general and specific terms. Inthe OT, there are three general terms for insects and twenty termsused to refer to specific types of insects. In the NT, two differenttypes of insects are referenced: gnats and locusts.

Thetwo most common general terms for insects are variously translated.Terms and phrases used to describe them include “livingcreatures” (Gen. 1:20), “creatures that move along theground” (Gen. 1:24–26; 6:7, 20; 7:8, 14, 23; 8:17, 19;Lev. 5:2; Ezek. 38:20; Hos. 2:18), that which “moves”(Gen. 9:3), “swarming things” (Lev. 11:10), “flyinginsects” (Lev. 11:20–21, 23; Deut. 14:19), “creatures”(Lev. 11:43), “crawling things” (Lev. 22:5; Ezek. 8:10),“reptiles” (1Kings 4:33), “teeming creatures”(Ps. 104:25), “small creatures” (Ps. 148:10), and “seacreatures” (Hab. 1:14). The other general term for insects isused with reference to swarms of insects, typically flies (Exod.8:21–22, 24, 29; Pss. 78:45; 105:31). Specific insects named inScripture are listed below.

Ants.Ants are used in Proverbs as an example of and encouragement towardwisdom. In 6:6 ants serve as an example for sluggards to reform theirslothful ways. Also, in 30:25 ants serve as an example of creaturesthat, despite their diminutive size, are wise enough to make advancepreparations for the long winter.

Bees.Beesare used both literally and figuratively in Scripture. Judges 14:8refers to honeybees, the product of which becomes the object ofSamson’s riddle. The other three uses of bees in the OT arefigurative of swarms of enemies against God’s people (Deut.1:44; Ps. 118:12; Isa. 7:18).

Fleas.Fleasare referenced in the OT only by David to indicate his insignificancein comparison with King Saul (1Sam. 24:14; 26:20). The irony ofthe comparison becomes clear with David’s later ascendancy.

Flies.The plague of flies follows that of gnats on Egypt (Exod. 8:20–31).Although the gnats are never said to have left Egypt, the flies areremoved upon Moses’ prayer. In Eccles. 10:1 the stench of deadflies is compared to the impact that folly can have on the wise. InIsa. 7:18 flies represent Egypt being summoned by God as his avengingagents on Judah’s sin. In addition, one of the gods in Ekronwas named “Baal-Zebub,” which means “lord of theflies” (2Kings 1:2–3, 6, 16). The reference toSatan in the NT using a similar name is likely an adaptation of theOT god of Ekron (Matt. 10:25; 12:24, 27; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15,18–19).

Gnats.Gnats are distinguished from flies in the OT, though the distinctionis not always apparent. Gnats are employed by God in the third plagueon Egypt (Exod. 8:16–19), while flies form the means ofpunishment in the fourth plague. The two are listed together in Ps.105:31 and appear parallel, though the former may be a reference to aswarm. Gnats were also used by Jesus to illustrate the hypocrisy ofthe Pharisees and the scribes (Matt. 23:24).

Hornets.TheBible uses hornets in Scripture as an agent of God’sdestruction. The term occurs three times in the OT. In eachoccurrence these stinging insects refer to God’s expulsion ofthe Canaanites from the land that God promised to his people. Thefirst two times, Exod. 23:28 and Deut. 7:20, hornets are used inreference to a promise of what God will do; the third time, Josh.24:12, they illustrate what God did.

Locusts.Of particular interest is the use of locusts in the Bible. The termor a similar nomenclature occurs close to fifty times in the NIV.Locusts demonstrate a number of characteristics in Scripture. First,they are under God’s control (Exod. 10:13–19). As such,they have no king (Prov. 30:27). They serve God’s purposes.Second, locusts often occur in very large numbers or swarms (Judg.6:5; Jer. 46:23; Nah. 3:15). At times, their numbers can be so largeas to cause darkness in the land (Exod. 10:15). Third, in largenumbers these insects have been known to ravage homes, devour theland, devastate fields, and debark trees (Exod. 10:12–15; Deut.28:38; 1Kings 8:37; 2Chron. 7:13; Pss. 78:46; 105:34;Isa. 33:4; Joel 1:4–7). Due to their fierceness, they werecompared to horses (Rev. 9:7). Fourth, locusts hide at night (Nah.3:17). Finally, certain types of locusts were used as food.

Moths.Mothsare referred to seven times in the OT and four times in the NT. Jobuses moths to illustrate the fragility of the unrighteous before God(4:19) and the impermanence of their labors (27:18). The otherreferences to moths in Scripture present them as the consumers of thewealth (garments) and pride of humankind as a means of God’sjudgment (Job 13:28; Ps. 39:11; Isa. 50:9; 51:8; Hos. 5:12; Matt.6:19–20; Luke 12:33; James 5:2).

Functionsof Insects in Scripture

Asagents in God’s judgment.Insects serve a variety of functions in Scripture. Most notably,insects serve as agents of judgment from God. The OT indicates howinsects were used as judgment on both Israel and their enemies.

Moseswarned of God’s judgment for Israel’s violation of thecovenant. He advised Israel that as a consequence of their sin, theywould expend much labor in the field but harvest little, because thelocusts would consume them (Deut. 28:38).

Solomon,in his prayer of dedication at the temple, beseeched God regardingjudgment that he might send in the form of grasshoppers to besiegethe land. He asked that when the people of God repent and pray, Godwould hear and forgive (2Chron. 6:26–30). God similarlyresponded by promising that when he “command[s] locusts todevour the land” as judgment for sin, and his people humblethemselves and pray, he will heal and forgive (2Chron. 7:13–14;cf. 1Kings 8:37).

Thepsalmist reminded Israel of God’s wonderful works in theirpast, one of which was his use of insects as a means of his judgment(Ps. 78:45–46; cf. 105:34).

Joel1:4 and 2:25 describe God’s judgment on Israel for theirunfaithfulness in successive waves of intensity (cf. Deut. 28:38, 42;2Chron. 6:28; Amos 4:9–10; 7:1–3). The devastationled to crop failure, famine, destruction of vines and fig trees, andgreat mourning. The severity of the judgment is described as beingunlike anything anyone in the community had ever experienced (Joel1:2–3).

Locustsare the subject of one of the visions of the prophet Amos. In thevision, God showed him the destructive power of these insects as ameans of judgment. Upon seeing the vision, the prophet interceded forthe people, and God relented (Amos 7:1–3).

Insectswere also used as judgments on Israel’s enemies. In the plagueson Egypt, insects were the agents of the third, fourth, and eighthplagues. The third plague (Exod. 8:16–19) was gnats.Interestingly, this was the first of Moses’ signs that themagicians of Pharaoh could not reproduce. Their response to theEgyptian king was that this must be the “finger of God.”There is no record of the gnats ever leaving Egypt, unlike the otherplagues.

Thefourth plague was flies (Exod. 8:20–32). Here the Biblespecifically indicates a distinction between the land of Goshen,where the Israelites dwelled, and the rest of the land of Egypt. Theflies covered all of Egypt except Goshen. This plague led toPharaoh’s first offer of compromise. Once Moses prayed and theflies left Egypt, Pharaoh hardened his heart.

Theeighth plague was in the form of locusts (Exod. 10:1–20). Inresponse to this plague, Pharaoh’s own officials complained tohim, beseeching him to let Israel leave their country lest it beentirely destroyed. The threat of this plague led to Pharaoh’ssecond offer of compromise. Once the locusts began to devastate theland of Egypt, Pharaoh confessed his sin before God, but as soon asthe locusts were removed, his heart again became hardened. Thus,three of the ten plagues on Egypt were in the form of insects.

Atthe end of a series of “woe” passages, the prophet Isaiahproclaimed God’s judgment against the enemies of his peoplebecause of their oppression. In the end, those who plundered willthemselves be plundered, as if by a “swarm of locusts”(Isa. 33:1–4; cf. Jer. 51:14, 27).

Insectswere also used as judgment on people who dwelled in the land ofIsrael prior to Israel’s occupation. Both before and after theevent took place, the Bible describes how God sent hornets to helpdrive out the occupants of the land of Canaan in preparation forIsrael’s arrival. This is described as part of God’sjudgment on these nations for their sins against him (Exod. 23:28;Deut. 7:20; Josh. 24:12).

Asfood.Insects also are mentioned in Scripture as food. Certain types oflocusts are listed as clean and eligible for consumption. The NTdescribes the diet of John the Baptist, which consisted of locustsand wild honey—a diet entirely dependent on insects (Matt. 3:4;Mark 1:6). The OT also notes Samson enjoying the labor of bees asfood (Judg. 14:8–9).

Usedfiguratively.Most often, insects are used figuratively in Scripture. They are usedin the proverbs of Scripture to illustrate wisdom. The sages wroteabout ants (Prov. 6:6; 30:25), locusts (Prov. 30:27), and even deadflies (Eccles. 10:1) both to extol wisdom and to encourage itsdevelopment in humankind.

Anotherfigurative use of insects is in the riddle about bees and honey posedby Samson to the Philistines (Judg. 14:12–18). As noted above,Samson ate honey (Judg. 14:8–9; cf. 1Sam. 14:25–29,43). Also, Scripture describes the promised land as a place of “milkand honey.”

Insectsalso are used to symbolize pursuing enemies (Deut. 1:44; Ps. 118:12;Isa. 7:18), innumerable forces (Judg. 6:5; 7:12; Ps. 105:34; Jer.46:23; Joel 2:25), insignificance (Num. 13:33; 1Sam. 24:14;26:20; Job 4:19; 27:18; Ps. 109:23; Eccles. 12:5; Isa. 40:22),vulnerability (Job 4:19), God’s incomparable nature (Job39:20), the brevity of life (Ps. 109:23), wisdom and organization(Prov. 30:27), and an invading army (Isa. 7:18; Jer. 51:14, 27), andthey are employed in a taunt against Israel’s enemies (Nah.3:15–17), a lesson on hypocrisy (Matt. 23:24), and an image ofeschatological judgment (Rev. 9:4–11).

ScripturalTruths about Insects

1.Insectsare part of God’s creation.Inview of all the uses of insects in Scripture, several key truthsemerge. First, insects are a part of the totality of God’screation. The very first chapter of the Bible uses one of the generalterms for insects as part of God’s creative activity on thesixth day of creation (Gen. 1:24). After God reviewed the creation onthat day, his assessment of it, including the insects, was that itwas “good” (1:25).

2.Insectsare under God’s control.Asecond scriptural truth related to insects in the Bible is that theyare under God’s control. In Deut. 7:20 God promised to sendhornets ahead of the children of Israel to prepare the promised landfor their arrival. Also, in Joel 2:25, when God promised to repairthe damage to the land caused by the locusts, he described them as“my great army that I sent.” Thus, the picture emergesthat what God has created, he alone reserves the authority tocontrol.

3.Insectsare cared for by God. A final truth regarding insects in Scripture isthat God takes care of them. Just as Jesus explained God’s carefor the birds of the air (Matt. 7:26), the psalmist explained thatall of God’s creation, specifically insects, “look to youto give them their food at the proper time” (Ps. 104:25–27).The conclusion of the psalmist is appropriate for all of God’screation: “When you hide your face, they are terrified; whenyou take away their breath, they die and return to the dust. When yousend your Spirit, they are created, and you renew the face of theground” (104:29–30). Thus, in the end, God creates, Godcontrols, and God cares—a lesson that all of God’screation shares.

Jewelry

Precious stones appear in visions and theophanies in theBible. Examples include Ezek. 1:16; 10:1; Rev. 4:3. These preciousstones, also used in jewelry, were well known to people in theancient Near East and in the first-century Mediterranean basin.

Jewelryknown in antiquity is broadly divided into two groups: everydayjewelry and fine jewelry. Everyday jewelry, found commonly among thepeople, was made of materials such as bronze, iron, and bone. Finejewelry, on the other hand, consisted of objects crafted from gold orsilver and included costly and precious stones. Jewelry was worn bothby men and women as part of clothing. The ancients also conservedwealth with investments in jewels or used jewels as indicators ofsocioeconomic placing in society.

Mostgold jewelry had sheet metal as its foundation. This sheet metal wasshaped and/or decorated. One form of decoration, filigree, involvedsoldering wiring in a pattern on a background. A later form ofdecoration known as granulation used tiny grains of gold as asubstitute for wires. An additional method of decorating jewelry wasinlaying with colored stones, glass, or other precious items.Engraving was likewise used for decoration.

Jewelryin Antiquity

Jewelryhas been discovered in Babylon dating back as far as 2700 BC.Examples of jewelry from this era were found in cemeteries in thecity of Ur. Examples of ancient jewelry were likewise found incemeteries on the island of Crete, dating back to 2400 BC. Otherspecimens of jewelry come from the Mycenaean world around 1100 BC.Jewelry dating after 800 BC was of high quality. During this periodplaces such as Knossos on Crete and cities such as Corinth and Athensproduced beautiful gold work.

Bythe seventh century BC, the finest jewelry was found on the Greekislands and in Asia Minor. Jewelry in Ephesus was offered to thegoddess Diana, yet was also made for personal adornment. By 600 BC,jewelry became very scarce in Greece. This scarcity lasted for thenext 150 years. Archaeologists postulate that supplies of gold werecut off by the Persians. After the Persians were defeated during theClassical period, some of the finest gold work was produced. CapturedPersian treasures and exploitation of Macedonian mines made gold andprecious stones and metals highly accessible to the Greeks.Consequently, jewelry was readily available during the Hellenisticperiod. The Greeks incorporated a variety of stones in their jewelry:carnelian, chalcedony, amethyst, and garnet, as well as small pearls.Materials and inspiration for the Greeks for certain types of jewelrycame from newly conquered territories. In the early Roman Empirejewelry resembled that seen during the Hellenistic period. Ingeneral, during the Greek and the Roman periods, jewelry wasgold-plated and decorated with costly stones.

Certainwriters in antiquity documented well-known or costly jewelry andprecious stones. One Roman historian described the value of pearls asthe “topmost rank among all things of price.”Correspondingly, he wrote about two pearls owned by Cleopatra, queenof Egypt, known as the largest in history. The Egyptian Book of theDead, dating to around 1500 BC, makes mention of amulets in the shapeof hearts, considered jewelry by some experts. These amulets weremade of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and green feldspar.

Jewelryin the biblical world was known by different terms. An ornamentalcirclet worn singly or as multiples on one’s arms or legs wasknown as a “bangle.” This term, however, does not occurin the Bible. The abundant presence of bangles as artifacts inarchaeological digs is an indicator of their significance in everydaylife in the biblical world. Bangles were stiff ornaments ofrelatively heavy weight. Materials varied: bronze, iron, silver,gold, and so forth. Bangles were of three types: bracelets, anklets,and armlets. They were either solid, complete circles or circletswith two distinct ends. These ends had specific designs, oftenartistically crafted in the shape of animal heads, such as those ofserpents.

Ringslikewise were prevalent in the biblical world. Rings were worn in theears, nose, and around fingers and toes. Nose rings were popularduring the Iron Age (1200–586 BC). In addition, rings were wornon neck cords. Rings not only were worn as articles of adornment butalso were used as signets. Brooches or pins mostly were worn onclothing and were made of wood, bronze, iron, silver, or gold.

Amuletswere common as religious jewelry. Worn as divine protection fromharm, amulets varied from simple to ornate. Egyptian amulets oftenincorporated snake imagery or representations of Egyptian gods.Ancient Near Eastern amulets often were smaller than an inch wide.Greek amulets were colorful and crafted from stones. Christianamulets in the shape of the crucified Christ have also been found.

Althoughnot often worn individually, beads were the most prevalent jewelryitem in the ancient Near East. Beads were strung in bracelets, rings,circlets, and so forth.

Jewelryin the Bible

Manydifferent items of jewelry are found in the Bible, including earrings(Gen. 35:4; Exod. 35:22; Judg. 8:24–26; Job 42:11), bracelets(Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Num. 31:50), necklaces (Gen. 41:42; Ezek. 16:11;Dan. 5:29), nose rings (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12),rings (Gen. 38:18, 25; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36; 35:22; 39:14, 30;Num. 31:50; 1Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; Job38:14; Isa. 3:21; Jer. 22:24; Hos. 2:13; Luke 15:22; James 2:2),headbands (Exod. 13:16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18), armlets (Num. 31:50;2Sam. 1:10; Isa. 3:20), pendants (Judg. 8:21, 26; Isa. 3:18),and anklets (Isa. 3:20).

Variousarticles of jewelry in the Bible carried significance beyond mereaesthetics. Early in Genesis, bracelets were used to signify thedesire for covenantal marriage. When Abraham’s servantdiscovered Rebekah, a potential bride for Isaac, he gave her a nosering and placed bracelets on her arms to signify that God had chosenher (Gen. 24:22, 47). The bracelets and nose ring weighed over tenshekels. By placing the jewelry on Rebekah’s arm, the servantindicated that a marriage contract was sought. The high value of thejewelry signifies the high bridal price paid for Rebekah.

Earlyin the OT, jewelry was used in temple worship. The law designatedthat the high priest’s breastpiece and ephod contain preciousstones along with setting stones. The stones signified the majestyand holiness of God as his people worshiped in his holy temple (Exod.25:7; 35:9).

Loversflattered one another by comparing physical features to articles offine jewelry (Song 5:14) and admiring their fine jewelry (4:9). God’speople appear as a jeweled necklace when God gathers them (Isa.49:18) and are as highly esteemed as a bride adorned with jewels(61:10).

Biblicalauthors also challenged people’s desire for jewelry withadmonitions to seek godly attributes and gifts of God above jewelsand jewelry. Wisdom was to be desired above jewels (Prov. 3:15;8:11), knowledgeable speech above gold and jewels (20:15), and agodly spouse far above jewels (31:10).

Similarto the habits of most ancient cultures, Israelite kings and othernotable leaders wore jewelry of special significance. Like otherkings of antiquity, Saul wore armlets and a crown (2Sam. 1:10),which were intended to signify royalty and competence in militaryaffairs. Such jewelry typically carried insignias that denotedfeatures of national and royal identity. The victorious warrior inRev. 19 wears many diadems (crowns) in order to signify his unmatchedpower (19:12). He has more than one crown, and even more than sevendiadems, which is the number of diadems that the dragon has (12:3).

Attimes, jewelry carried negative connotations, especially whenacquired within polytheistic trends of society or else designed as anobject of worship. Even Jacob was found burying his jewelry thataccompanied his foreign idols (Gen. 35:4). Such instances lendcredence to theories that even early Hebrew faith wrangled withpolytheism and was infused with its many golden artifacts. Gideonmade an ephod from the sparkling plunder (rings and pendants) of theMidianites (Judg. 8:21). This ephod became an object of worship forthe Israelites and greatly offended God.

Kingshad signet rings that contained their own personalized engravings.The engravings were made by stonecutters who carefully worked thesmall semiprecious stones atop the rings. Throughout the OT, ringswere used to make impressions on official documents (Exod. 28:11;1Kings 21:8; Esther 8:8). Prophets used signet rings to sealprophecies that were of grave importance for the nation (Isa. 8:16;Jer. 32:10). Unique rings were designed by notable families in orderto signify the honor of the patriarch. Of special interest is theusage of the ring in Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son. Thering was placed on the returning son’s finger to show theradical grace of the father, who was willing to join his honor to hisson’s shame (Luke 15:22) as the son was brought back into thehousehold.

Incertain NT writings, women are admonished not to adorn themselveswith external jewelry (1Tim. 2:9; 1Pet. 3:3), as this wasa sign of materialism and immodesty. In Rev. 21, jewels appear inJohn’s depiction of the new Jerusalem: it is a city of majesticbeauty adorned with precious jewels, gates of pearls, and streets ofgold (21:18–21).

Jewels

Precious stones appear in visions and theophanies in theBible. Examples include Ezek. 1:16; 10:1; Rev. 4:3. These preciousstones, also used in jewelry, were well known to people in theancient Near East and in the first-century Mediterranean basin.

Jewelryknown in antiquity is broadly divided into two groups: everydayjewelry and fine jewelry. Everyday jewelry, found commonly among thepeople, was made of materials such as bronze, iron, and bone. Finejewelry, on the other hand, consisted of objects crafted from gold orsilver and included costly and precious stones. Jewelry was worn bothby men and women as part of clothing. The ancients also conservedwealth with investments in jewels or used jewels as indicators ofsocioeconomic placing in society.

Mostgold jewelry had sheet metal as its foundation. This sheet metal wasshaped and/or decorated. One form of decoration, filigree, involvedsoldering wiring in a pattern on a background. A later form ofdecoration known as granulation used tiny grains of gold as asubstitute for wires. An additional method of decorating jewelry wasinlaying with colored stones, glass, or other precious items.Engraving was likewise used for decoration.

Jewelryin Antiquity

Jewelryhas been discovered in Babylon dating back as far as 2700 BC.Examples of jewelry from this era were found in cemeteries in thecity of Ur. Examples of ancient jewelry were likewise found incemeteries on the island of Crete, dating back to 2400 BC. Otherspecimens of jewelry come from the Mycenaean world around 1100 BC.Jewelry dating after 800 BC was of high quality. During this periodplaces such as Knossos on Crete and cities such as Corinth and Athensproduced beautiful gold work.

Bythe seventh century BC, the finest jewelry was found on the Greekislands and in Asia Minor. Jewelry in Ephesus was offered to thegoddess Diana, yet was also made for personal adornment. By 600 BC,jewelry became very scarce in Greece. This scarcity lasted for thenext 150 years. Archaeologists postulate that supplies of gold werecut off by the Persians. After the Persians were defeated during theClassical period, some of the finest gold work was produced. CapturedPersian treasures and exploitation of Macedonian mines made gold andprecious stones and metals highly accessible to the Greeks.Consequently, jewelry was readily available during the Hellenisticperiod. The Greeks incorporated a variety of stones in their jewelry:carnelian, chalcedony, amethyst, and garnet, as well as small pearls.Materials and inspiration for the Greeks for certain types of jewelrycame from newly conquered territories. In the early Roman Empirejewelry resembled that seen during the Hellenistic period. Ingeneral, during the Greek and the Roman periods, jewelry wasgold-plated and decorated with costly stones.

Certainwriters in antiquity documented well-known or costly jewelry andprecious stones. One Roman historian described the value of pearls asthe “topmost rank among all things of price.”Correspondingly, he wrote about two pearls owned by Cleopatra, queenof Egypt, known as the largest in history. The Egyptian Book of theDead, dating to around 1500 BC, makes mention of amulets in the shapeof hearts, considered jewelry by some experts. These amulets weremade of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and green feldspar.

Jewelryin the biblical world was known by different terms. An ornamentalcirclet worn singly or as multiples on one’s arms or legs wasknown as a “bangle.” This term, however, does not occurin the Bible. The abundant presence of bangles as artifacts inarchaeological digs is an indicator of their significance in everydaylife in the biblical world. Bangles were stiff ornaments ofrelatively heavy weight. Materials varied: bronze, iron, silver,gold, and so forth. Bangles were of three types: bracelets, anklets,and armlets. They were either solid, complete circles or circletswith two distinct ends. These ends had specific designs, oftenartistically crafted in the shape of animal heads, such as those ofserpents.

Ringslikewise were prevalent in the biblical world. Rings were worn in theears, nose, and around fingers and toes. Nose rings were popularduring the Iron Age (1200–586 BC). In addition, rings were wornon neck cords. Rings not only were worn as articles of adornment butalso were used as signets. Brooches or pins mostly were worn onclothing and were made of wood, bronze, iron, silver, or gold.

Amuletswere common as religious jewelry. Worn as divine protection fromharm, amulets varied from simple to ornate. Egyptian amulets oftenincorporated snake imagery or representations of Egyptian gods.Ancient Near Eastern amulets often were smaller than an inch wide.Greek amulets were colorful and crafted from stones. Christianamulets in the shape of the crucified Christ have also been found.

Althoughnot often worn individually, beads were the most prevalent jewelryitem in the ancient Near East. Beads were strung in bracelets, rings,circlets, and so forth.

Jewelryin the Bible

Manydifferent items of jewelry are found in the Bible, including earrings(Gen. 35:4; Exod. 35:22; Judg. 8:24–26; Job 42:11), bracelets(Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Num. 31:50), necklaces (Gen. 41:42; Ezek. 16:11;Dan. 5:29), nose rings (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12),rings (Gen. 38:18, 25; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36; 35:22; 39:14, 30;Num. 31:50; 1Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; Job38:14; Isa. 3:21; Jer. 22:24; Hos. 2:13; Luke 15:22; James 2:2),headbands (Exod. 13:16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18), armlets (Num. 31:50;2Sam. 1:10; Isa. 3:20), pendants (Judg. 8:21, 26; Isa. 3:18),and anklets (Isa. 3:20).

Variousarticles of jewelry in the Bible carried significance beyond mereaesthetics. Early in Genesis, bracelets were used to signify thedesire for covenantal marriage. When Abraham’s servantdiscovered Rebekah, a potential bride for Isaac, he gave her a nosering and placed bracelets on her arms to signify that God had chosenher (Gen. 24:22, 47). The bracelets and nose ring weighed over tenshekels. By placing the jewelry on Rebekah’s arm, the servantindicated that a marriage contract was sought. The high value of thejewelry signifies the high bridal price paid for Rebekah.

Earlyin the OT, jewelry was used in temple worship. The law designatedthat the high priest’s breastpiece and ephod contain preciousstones along with setting stones. The stones signified the majestyand holiness of God as his people worshiped in his holy temple (Exod.25:7; 35:9).

Loversflattered one another by comparing physical features to articles offine jewelry (Song 5:14) and admiring their fine jewelry (4:9). God’speople appear as a jeweled necklace when God gathers them (Isa.49:18) and are as highly esteemed as a bride adorned with jewels(61:10).

Biblicalauthors also challenged people’s desire for jewelry withadmonitions to seek godly attributes and gifts of God above jewelsand jewelry. Wisdom was to be desired above jewels (Prov. 3:15;8:11), knowledgeable speech above gold and jewels (20:15), and agodly spouse far above jewels (31:10).

Similarto the habits of most ancient cultures, Israelite kings and othernotable leaders wore jewelry of special significance. Like otherkings of antiquity, Saul wore armlets and a crown (2Sam. 1:10),which were intended to signify royalty and competence in militaryaffairs. Such jewelry typically carried insignias that denotedfeatures of national and royal identity. The victorious warrior inRev. 19 wears many diadems (crowns) in order to signify his unmatchedpower (19:12). He has more than one crown, and even more than sevendiadems, which is the number of diadems that the dragon has (12:3).

Attimes, jewelry carried negative connotations, especially whenacquired within polytheistic trends of society or else designed as anobject of worship. Even Jacob was found burying his jewelry thataccompanied his foreign idols (Gen. 35:4). Such instances lendcredence to theories that even early Hebrew faith wrangled withpolytheism and was infused with its many golden artifacts. Gideonmade an ephod from the sparkling plunder (rings and pendants) of theMidianites (Judg. 8:21). This ephod became an object of worship forthe Israelites and greatly offended God.

Kingshad signet rings that contained their own personalized engravings.The engravings were made by stonecutters who carefully worked thesmall semiprecious stones atop the rings. Throughout the OT, ringswere used to make impressions on official documents (Exod. 28:11;1Kings 21:8; Esther 8:8). Prophets used signet rings to sealprophecies that were of grave importance for the nation (Isa. 8:16;Jer. 32:10). Unique rings were designed by notable families in orderto signify the honor of the patriarch. Of special interest is theusage of the ring in Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son. Thering was placed on the returning son’s finger to show theradical grace of the father, who was willing to join his honor to hisson’s shame (Luke 15:22) as the son was brought back into thehousehold.

Incertain NT writings, women are admonished not to adorn themselveswith external jewelry (1Tim. 2:9; 1Pet. 3:3), as this wasa sign of materialism and immodesty. In Rev. 21, jewels appear inJohn’s depiction of the new Jerusalem: it is a city of majesticbeauty adorned with precious jewels, gates of pearls, and streets ofgold (21:18–21).

Lancet

A lance (NIV) or lancet (KJV) is a sharp-pointed object witha shaft. While lances normally were used as weapons (e.g., Job 39:23;41:29; Jer. 50:42), the prophets of Baal used lances and swords tocut themselves in order to arouse their god to action (1Kings18:28).

Land of Canaan

A region generally identified with the landmass betweenancient Syria and Egypt, including parts of the Sinai Peninsula,Palestine from the Jordan River to the Mediterranean, and southernPhoenicia (modern Lebanon). Although there is some discussion aboutthe origin of the name “Canaan” and its meaning, the nameapparently arises from the primary inhabitants of the region prior toJoshua’s incursion into the land, since it is primarily used inconnection with the phrase “the land of,” indicating thatthe descendants of Canaan possess it. Because the identity of theland of Canaan was linked as much to its inhabitants as it was to anysort of fixed borders, the boundaries are identified in various waysthroughout the biblical text. Such descriptions vary from a ratherlimited area of influence (as suggested by Num. 13:29) to a largerland spanning an area from the Euphrates to the Nile (Gen. 15:18;Exod. 23:23). Because of its strategic position as a buffer betweenEgypt and Mesopotamia and between Arabia and the sea, it served as aprimary trading outpost and the location of numerous importanthistorical events both prior to and after Israel’s appearancein the land.

Inthe Bible, the geographical reference “the land of Canaan”finds primary expression, not surprisingly, in Genesis throughJudges. The promise to Abraham that his descendants would inherit theland of the Canaanites (Gen. 15:18–21) is the theological focalpoint of the uses of the term “Canaan” throughout thesebiblical books. Once that inheritance was achieved and Israel becamea viable state, the term’s use seems to serve the doublepurpose of being both a geographical marker and a reminder of thenature of its former predominant inhabitants. The prophets drew uponthe term to remind Israel of the land’s former status, both inits positive (Isa. 19:18) and negative (Isa. 23:11; Zeph. 2:5)connotations. The term is transliterated twice in the NT in therecounting of OT history (Acts 7:11; 13:19). One further connectionbetween Canaan and the perspectives communicated concerning it in theOT is the apparent association of the land with corrupt tradepractices. That is, while some believe that the word “Canaan”always meant “merchant” or some similar word, its use inScripture suggests that the tradesmen of Canaan were of suchdisrepute in the recollection of ancient Israel that the term becamea synonym for “unjust trader” (Job 41:6; Ezek. 16:29;17:4; Zeph. 1:11; Zech. 14:21).

History

Theproximity of Canaan to Egypt meant that from its earliest periods itfound itself beholden to the pharaohs of Egypt. The EgyptianExecration texts from the Old Kingdom era tell of Egypt’sinfluence over Canaan in the early second millennium. After theexpulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, the pharaohs of the New Kingdomasserted their control over the land. Most famous among these recordsis Thutmose III’s account of his defeat of Megiddo throughthe implementation of both cunning and skill. This same pharaoh wouldestablish a system of dividing Canaan and its inhabitants fortaxation and administration that would be so successful that Solomonwould reimplement the same system during his reign (1 Kings4:7–19). Even in the weaker days of Egypt following the NewKingdom, pharaohs such as Necho and Shishak and their successors thePtolemies would often seek to revisit the days of glory in campaignsinto Canaan.

Inaddition to Egypt, other outside forces found their way into Canaanand exerted influence on its development. The earliest settlers seemto have come from Mesopotamia, and Semitic influence is witnessed asearly as 3000 BC. In the period between Egypt’s control ofCanaan during the Old Kingdom and its later reassertion afterexpelling the Hyksos, Canaan witnessed a massive influx of Amoritesfrom the north and also incursions by the Hittites and the Hurrians.As Egypt’s power waned toward the end of the New Kingdom, thePhilistines came in from the sea and the Israelites from across theJordan. All these societies were absorbed into the Canaanite cultureor were themselves modified by the Canaanites. Israelite success inremoving mention of the Canaanites as an identifiable entity wouldnot be firmly established until late in the eighth century underHezekiah.

Thestory of Israel’s predominance in the area of Canaan begins, ofcourse, with the infiltration into the land under Joshua and persistsuntil the fall of the temple in AD 70 at the hands of the Romans.During that period, Canaan endured as a place of importance as astaging ground for controlling both Mesopotamia and Egypt andtherefore witnessed campaigns by most of the great leaders ofAssyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, and Rome. Of course, with eachcampaign came alterations in both the political and the culturallandscape of the land and reinforcement of the view that the area wasthe center of the world. Indeed, it is in Canaan, in the JezreelValley, that Scripture turns its focus for the final battle betweenGod and the forces of Satan at Armageddon.

Geographyand Climate

Geography.Though small in scope, the region of Canaan encompassed asurprisingly wide variety of environments. Within its topography onecould find perilous deserts, snow-capped mountains, thick forests,lush plains, coastal beaches, rugged hills, deep valleys, andseparate water sources full of both life and minerals. The Shephelah,or coastal plain, lacks any natural harbor areas that would have ledto the early exploitation of the Mediterranean in the south that isso well known in the northern areas of Phoenicia. It does, however,provide wide-open, fertile areas fed by the rain runoff from thecentral hill country, which allowed it to be a useful source offarming and civilization from a very early period.

Thecentral hill country is essentially a ridge that runs parallel to thecoast and undulates in elevation from the mountainous north to therugged but less elevated regions of the south. This ridge served as anatural barrier against travel from west to east, so it is notsurprising that important military towns such as Hazor cropped up inplaces where valleys in this ridge allowed travelers to move from thecoast to the inland regions as necessary to reach Mesopotamia fromEgypt. One such valley of significance through the history of theland of Canaan is the Esdraelon or Jezreel Valley. It provides a wideswath of land that moves from Akko in the west (  justnorth of the Carmel Range) to the Sea of Galilee in the east, withaccess points in the north and south. Within this valley weresettlements such as Megiddo and Hazor in earlier times, and Nazarethand Tiberias in later times.

Alongthe eastern edge of the central hill country is the Jordan RiftValley. The elevation drops dramatically from cities in the hillcountry, such as Jerusalem at about 2,500 feet above sea level, tocities in the valley, such as Jericho at about 1,000 feet below sealevel, within the span of about fifteen miles. The valley itself ispart of a much larger rift that starts in southeast Turkey andcontinues all the way to Mozambique in Africa. Waters from snowyMount Hermon and a couple of natural springs feed into the Sea ofGalilee and then flow into the Jordan River, which snakes its waydown into the Dead Sea. The lands around the Jordan River were oncevery fertile in the north and probably included abundant forests andwildlife. Toward the south of the Jordan River, one approaches thewilderness surrounding the Dead Sea, a region well known for itsmineral contents.

Thesouthernmost section of Canaan, known as the Negev, is an unforgivingregion with mountains, deserts, and interspersed oases throughout. Itopens up into the Arabian Desert to the east and the Sinai Peninsulato the southwest. Its primary cities of importance in biblical timeswere Beersheba and Raphia. As the gateway from Egypt to Canaan, theNegev played a significant role in biblical history.

Climate.The climate of Canaan played a significant role in its religion andhistory. It is generally recognized that climate change played arather momentous role in population movements by nomads, indestabilization of powerful governments, and in the capability, orlack thereof, of nations to participate in the trade that was at theheart of Canaan’s growth, spread of influence, and success.Within Canaan itself, because the natural water sources were on thewrong side of the central hill country, most of its water came fromrainfall. It is not surprising, therefore, that many of thediscussions that take place in both Canaanite and Israelite religiousexpressions concerning the power of their gods found utterance interms of a god’s ability to grant rain (see 1 Kings17–18). The rainy season began in October and typicallycontinued through April. The other months of the year witnessedlittle or no rainfall. Although in a temperate zone within which onemight expect high temperatures, the coastal plains were keptrelatively cool by winds coming in off the sea. The coastal mountainareas, such as Carmel, were the most likely to receive rainfall, sowhen they were without it, all the land suffered (Amos 1:2).

Cultureand Politics

Thehistory of Canaan begins with an archaeological record that travelsback into the first signs of human settlement anywhere in the world.Such early attestation exists within the confines of Palestine itselfat Jericho and Megiddo, both sites of natural springs that would haveattracted settlers. The pre-Israelite civilizations of Canaan arewell attested during the Bronze Age (c. 3300–1200 BC). Theirculture as represented in the art and architecture of the landdemonstrates a developed people who were metropolitan in taste andgifted in style. Furthermore, because of the placement of the landbetween Egypt and Mesopotamia and the numerous incursions by outsideforces throughout its history, Canaan reveals a people with a hightolerance for change and a willingness to absorb other viewpointsinto their perspectives and practice. Archaeological finds reveal amixture of Egyptian, Sumerian, Amorite, Hittite, and Akkadianinfluences in their literature, material wealth, and religion.

Thoughunified in terms of a worldview and religious expression, the peopleof Canaan were politically committed to independent expressions oftheir power and influence. The greater cities seem to have served ashubs around which smaller communities and cities organized andremained separate from each other. The Amarna letters of thefourteenth century BC reveal leaders who did not trust each other andwho sought the Egyptian pharaoh’s favor as they vied forposition and strength. As one would expect, different city-statesheld more sway in different eras. Ebla flourished in the period of2500–2000 BC and then again around 1800 BC. Likewise, Byblosflourished in the period of 2500–1300 BC. It is in the MiddleBronze Age (2200–1550 BC) that cities more directly involvedwith the biblical narrative started to flourish. For instance,Jerusalem, Jericho, Hazor, and Megiddo reached their height of powerand influence around 1700–1500 BC, and each of these ismentioned in various texts of the time that give us some insight intoCanaan’s role in the greater political history. It isUgarit/Ras Shamra, which flourished in 1400–1200 BC, however,that has granted us the greatest amount of textual knowledge andinformation about the religion and literature of Canaan.

Religion

Theexcavations of Ras Shamra (beginning in 1929), and the accompanyingdiscovery of its archive of clay tablets, granted modern scholars aperspective into Canaanite religion that had been hinted at in thebiblical text but previously had remained somewhat of a mystery. Thetablets themselves date between 1400 and 1200 BC. They reveal ahighly developed religion with identifiable, well-defined deities.These deities represent religious practice and thought in the regionthat go back to at least 2000 BC, and the Mesopotamian religions theyare dependent on go back well beyond that.

Canaanitedeities.Theprimary gods identified in the text include El, Baal, Asherah (atUgarit, Athirat), Anath (at Ugarit, Anat), and Ashtoreth (at Ugarit,Astarte). El was the supreme Canaanite deity, though in popular usethe people of Canaan seem to have been more interested in Baal.

Therelationship between the Canaanite use of the name “El”for their supreme god and Israel’s use of the same in referenceto its own God (Gen. 33:20; Job 8:3; Pss. 18:31, 33, 48; 68:21) issomething that biblical authors used at various points in theirwritings (Ps. 81:9–10; Nah. 1:2), never in the sense ofassociating the two as one and the same, but solely for the purposeof distinguishing their God, Yahweh, from any associations with thedescriptions and nature of the Canaanite El (Exod. 34:14).Practically speaking, the coincidence probably resulted from the factthat the Hebrew word ’el had a dual intent in its common usage,similar to the way a modern English speaker will sometimes use “god”as either a common or a proper noun.

Like“El,” the term “Baal” had a dual function inits use. Because the word means “master” or “lord,”the people of Canaan could apply “Baal” to either thesingular deity of the greater pantheon or to individual gods of amore local variety. Local manifestations included Baal-Peor,Baal-Hermon, Baal-Zebul, and Baal-Meon. The OT acknowledges themultiplicity of Baals in some places (Judg. 2:11; 3:7; 1 Sam.7:4) but also seems to allude to a singular ultimate Baal (1 Kings18; 2 Kings 21:3), called “Baal-Shamen” or“Baal-Hadad” elsewhere. The fact that Baal was recognizedin the Ugaritic texts as the god of the thunderbolt adds aninteresting insight to the struggle on Mount Carmel, in which onewould suppose that had he been real, the one thing he should havebeen able to do was bring fire down from the sky; but he could not(1 Kings 18). Recognition that the term “Baal” couldrefer to a number of gods or to one ultimate god may also help oneunderstand the syncretism that took place in Israel between Yahwehand Baal addressed by the prophet Hosea (Hos. 2:16). To the commonperson who recognized the multiplicity of the term “Baal”and yet also heard of his supremacy, the assignment of the name toYahweh and the resulting combining that would occur would seem anatural progression, though still sinful in the eyes of God.

Thesynthesis of Baal and Yahweh is demonstrated in Scripture as being atemptation from national Israel’s earliest encounters withBaalism. The events at Peor (Num. 25) demonstrate a propensity towardthis type of activity, but the confusion between Yahweh and Baalbecame strongest once Israel entered into the land. Gideon had asecond name, “Jerub-Baal” (Judg. 6:32), and the peoplethemselves worshiped Baal-Berith (“Baal of the covenant”)as an indication that they believed their covenant to be with Baal,not Yahweh. Saul, Jonathan, and David all had sons named for Baal:Esh-Baal, Merib-Baal, and Beeliada respectively. Jeroboam I madethe connection even more explicit in his setting of shrines at Danand Bethel with the golden calves that were common icons for Baal inthe era, but that he apparently viewed as being appropriaterepresentations of Yahweh. By the time of the prophets, suchconfusion evidently was entrenched into the very heart of both Israeland Judah; however, Yahweh was able to utilize the false assessmentsof his character to clarify his true character and ultimately bringIsrael back to him.

Asherahwas the wife of El in Ugaritic mythology, but apparently because ofBaal’s accessibility and ubiquitous nature, she was ultimatelygiven to Baal as a consort among Canaanites in the south. Apparently,her worship was also linked to trees, and the mentioning of “Asherahpoles” (Exod. 34:13; Deut. 7:5; Judg. 6:25) in Scripturesuggests that such a linkage had been stylized into representativetrees at sacred locations. Asherah had prophets (1 Kings 18:19)and specific instruments of worship in Israel (2 Kings 23:4) andbecame so ensconced in practice and thought that her form often wasreplicated in the form of items known as Asherim. The previouslymentioned synthesis between Baal and Yahweh seems also to have foundexpression regarding Asherah within Israel. At Kuntillet Ajrud afamous graffito reads “Yahweh of Samaria and his Asherah.”This example of the people granting a consort to Yahweh is yetanother instance where the biblical revelation is so distinct amongsurrounding cultures because of the absence of such imagery regardingGod.

Anathwas understood as both Baal’s sister and his lover in Canaanitemythology. Given her apparent replacement in the thought of thesouthern Canaanite tribes by Asherah, it is not surprising that theonly place we find Anath mentioned is in appellations, such as “BethAnath” (lit., “the house of Anath” [Josh. 19:38;Judg. 1:33]). She also seems to have played a role in the tone ofBaal worship in that she functioned as a goddess of both warfare andsexuality. Her portrayal in Ugaritic texts and in inscriptions fromEgypt suggests a lasciviousness that has become the definingcharacteristic of Canaanite worship and also seems to be at thecenter of the methodology implemented by Hosea to reach Israel, whichhad become ensnarled in a similar outlook regarding Yahweh (Hos.1–3).

Thedescriptions of Ashtoreth at Ugarit portray her in much the samelight as Anath. Some cultures such as Egypt and later Syria seem tohave even melded them together into one being. Whether this combiningwas a part of the Israelite conceptions is difficult to determine,although such a combination may explain why only Ashtoreth ismentioned in the biblical text as an individual deity and not Anath.In any case, Ashtoreth apparently was a primary figure in thecorruption of worship during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 11:5,33; 2 Kings 23:13).

Summary.By the time the Israelites entered the land, they found a religionthat was already well established and accustomed to absorbing variousviewpoints into its expression and practice. Additionally, they founda religion that catered to the more base and animalistic tendenciesto which all humanity is drawn since the fall. The commonality ofsuch practices among almost all ancient cultures serves as a potentreminder of the distinctiveness and power of the biblical worldview.The narratives, poems, and prophetic oracles of the OT demonstrate aknowledge of these beliefs and an acknowledgment of their place inthe lives of everyday Israelites, but they never demonstrate asubmission to them in their portrayal of the true God and hisexpectations of his people.

Mill

One of several different types of stone implements used togrind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily,so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life(Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22). Women (Matt. 24:41) or servants (Exod.11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Judg. 16:21),might be made to perform the mundane task.

Millsoften were small enough for one person to use. Apparently, the oldesttype of hand mill included a lower, concave stone made of basalt orother hard stone (Job 41:24). The person grinding rubbed a second,smaller, loaf-shaped upper millstone (Judg. 9:53) back and forth onthe lower one to grind the grain. Later mills had two circular slabs,and the user rotated the upper stone by a wooden peg attached as ahandle. Larger mills were also used in commercial operations. Alarge, well-carved double inverted cone was set on a cone-shapedlower stone. A pair of people or animals rotated the upper stone bypushing posts set into sockets. References to casting largemillstones into the sea (Matt. 18:6; Rev. 18:21) probably refer tosuch a large upper millstone.

Myrtle Tree

Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).

Mystery

A mystery entails knowledge that is disclosed to some butwithheld from others. Nothing is mysterious to God (Heb. 4:13), andhe alone understands the full purpose of his will (Job 38:1–40:24;Isa. 46:10), but he also condescends to reveal portions of his willto those whom he chooses (John 16:15).

Oneway that God reveals such mysteries in the OT is through dreams andtheir interpretation. This is the dynamic at work in Dan. 2, whereGod reveals secrets to King Nebuchadnezzar through cryptic imagery.The meaning of this imagery remains hidden, however, until the“mystery was revealed to Daniel in a vision” (v.19).Once revealed, the dreams detail God’s plans for the future ofhis kingdom.

Similarly,Jesus’ parables make known the character and future of God’scoming kingdom to his chosen servants, while also concealing it fromthose outside the circle (Matt. 13:18–23). Paul, by contrast,used “mystery” to refer to the disclosure of God’splan for the redemption of humanity, namely the inclusion of Gentileswithin “Israel” (Rom. 11:25). This plan, foreshadowed inthe OT but nevertheless hidden in essentials, had only recently beenfully revealed in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rom.16:25; Eph. 1:9; 1Tim. 3:16; cf. 1Pet. 1:10–12).The gospel message is therefore the revelation of this mystery, theproclamation of the truth about Jesus Christ, now made public to theworld (Eph. 3:3–9).

Overshadow

In the OT, overshadowing is associated with covering orprotection. The directions for constructing the ark of the covenantinclude two gold cherubim, whose wings are to extend up andovershadow it in a posture of protection (Exod. 25:20; 37:9; 1Kings8:7). Tree branches are also described as overshadowing (Job 40:22;Ezek. 31:3).

Inthe NT, overshadowing is primarily employed figuratively and isassociated with the presence of God. The Synoptic accounts of Jesus’transfiguration incorporate the presence of an overshadowing cloudfrom which the voice of God emerges, identifying Jesus as his Son andurging Peter, James, and John to listen to him (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7;Luke 9:34). The most intriguing overshadowing, however, occurs whenGabriel tells Mary that she will be overshadowed by the power of theMost High and thereby conceive Jesus, who will be the heir to theeternal throne of David (Luke 1:35). Two additional NT occurrencesare more literal (Acts 5:15; Heb. 9:5).

Ownership

Both Testaments proclaim, “The earth is the Lord’s,and everything in it” (Ps. 24:1; 1Cor. 10:26). Only theLord and Creator of the universe can rightfully claim ownership overanything, be it physical, spiritual, or moral (Job 41:11). Thus,“every good and perfect gift is from above, coming down fromthe Father of the heavenly lights” (James 1:17). He even ownshuman beings themselves. In a biblical worldview, God alone exercisesownership. People, however, exercise stewardship over what he hasgiven.

Scriptureguides and regulates human relationships with respect to owningproperty. While people are ultimately only stewards, they must neverwrongly take or desire what God has entrusted to others. ThereforeGod commands, “You shall not steal” (Exod. 20:15) and“You shall not covet” (20:17). The book of Proverbsexplains how to wisely dispose of one’s goods (Prov. 3:9, 10;11:25; 22:9), as does Jesus’ parable of the talents (Matt.25:14–30). Numerous passages teach that human “ownership”should be earned through work, if possible (Jer. 29:5–7;2Thess. 3:10). People should acknowledge their possessions asgifts from God by giving to the poor (Eph. 4:28) and to God’sappointed leaders, both secular and Christian: “Give back toCaesar what is Caesar’s and to God what is God’s”(Mark 12:17 [cf. Rom. 13:6; 1Tim. 5:18]).

Infact, the whole Bible can be read as the drama of the divine ownerrelating to his human stewards. At creation, God charges Adam and Eve“to work ... and take care of” the garden(Gen. 2:15), thereby entrusting all creation to human care. Indisobedience they abuse their stewardship, as will their offspring.In the fall, humankind forfeits God’s benefits in paradise(Gen. 3); he disowns his unfaithful stewards. The rest of Scripturerelates how God redeems a people for himself, adopting thedisinherited back into his household. He begins by promising Abrahamthat his offspring, Israel, will possess a land, Canaan (Gen. 17:8),which will be a kind of new paradise (Exod. 3:8). The Israelitesconquer the territory, but over time they prove to be unfaithfulstewards. After breaking God’s covenant, they lose the land inexile.

Jesus’parable of the landowner in Matt. 21:33–44 is basically acapsule version of this grand biblical story. Both come to a climaxwhen God sends his Son, Jesus Christ. He comes to “buy back”his people from their sins as the one faithful servant (Mark 10:45),even unto death on a cross (Phil. 2:8). Jesus pays for his elect’sadoption with his blood, so now believers partake in God’sownership over all things. “All things are yours, whether ...the world or life or death or the present or the future—all areyours, and you are of Christ, and Christ is of God” (1Cor.3:21–23).

Petition

A distinction needs to be made between the variousoccurrences of the words “pray” and “prayer”in most translations of the Bible and the modern connotation of thesame words. In the OT, the main Hebrew words translated as “topray” and “prayer” (palal and tepillah) refer tothe act of bringing a petition or request before God. They do notnormally, if ever, refer to the other elements that we today think ofas being included in the act of praying, such as praise orthanksgiving. The same is the case in the NT, where the main Greekwords translated “topray” and “prayer” (proseuchomai and proseuchē)also specifically denote making a petition or request to God. Butother words and constructions in both Testaments are also translated“to pray” and “prayer,” and this article willdeal with the larger concept,including praise, thanksgiving, petition, and confession, as opposedto the narrower meaning of the particular Hebrew and Greek terms (seealso Praise; Thanksgiving; Worship).

OldTestament

Inthe OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modernways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayerdoes not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer toGod, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray tohumans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction betweenthe sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in theOT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, suchas that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. Theseshould be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, butrather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” inrecognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. Inthe NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.

Manyof the prayers in the OT are explicitly set in a covenantal context.God owes nothing to his creatures, but God has sworn to be faithfulto those with whom he has entered into covenant. Thus, many OTprayers specifically appeal to the covenant as a motivation for boththose praying and God’s answering (1Kings 8:23–25;Neh. 1:5–11; 9:32; Pss. 25:10–11; 44:17–26; 74:20;89:39–49). In postexilic books such as Ezra, Nehemiah, andDaniel, an important feature in the recorded prayers is the use ofprior Scripture, praying God’s words (many times covenantal)back to him (in the NT, see Acts 4:24–30). Also, the closenessengendered by the covenant relationship between God and his peoplewas unique in the ancient Near Eastern context. So Moses can marvel,“What other nation is so great as to have their gods near themthe way the Lord our God is near us whenever we pray to him?”(Deut. 4:7).

Prayermust be made from a heart that is right toward God. There is noguarantee that God will hear every prayer (Ps. 66:18; Prov. 1:28;Isa. 1:15; 59:2). For the most part, the “rightness” thatGod requires in prayer is “a broken and contrite heart”(Ps. 51:17; cf. Isa. 66:2).

Althoughseveral passages talk about prayer in the context of sacrifice (e.g.,Gen. 13:4), there is surprisingly little emphasis on prayer in thelegal texts about sacrifice in the Pentateuch, no prescriptions forthe kinds of prayer or the words that are to be said in connectionwith the sacrifices. Interestingly, however, in later, perhapspostexilic contexts, where there is no temple and therefore nosacrifice, we find texts such as Ps. 141:2, where the petitioner asksGod to accept prayer as if it were an offering of incense and theevening sacrifice (cf. Prov. 15:8; in the NT, see Rev. 5:8).

Apresupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and mayindeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is notprimarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of theone praying, but rather about God changing the circumstances of theone praying.

Thereis a striking honesty, some would even say brashness, evident in manyOT prayers. Jeremiah laments that God has deceived both the people(Jer. 4:10) and Jeremiah himself (20:7) and complains about God’sjustice (12:1–4). Job stands, as it were, in God’s faceand demands that the Almighty answer his questions (Job 31:35–37).The psalmist accuses God of having broken his covenant promises (Ps.89:39). While it is true that God does, to some extent, rebukeJeremiah and Job (Jer. 12:5; Job 38–42), he does not ignorethem or cast them aside. This would seem, ultimately, to encouragesuch honesty and boldness on the part of those who pray.

Literarily,accounts of prayers in narratives serve to provide characterizationsof the ones praying. The recorded prayers of people such as Abraham,Moses, Hannah, Ezra, and Nehemiah demonstrate their true piety andhumility before God. By contrast, the prayer of Jonah recorded inJon. 2, in its narrative context, betrays a certain hypocrisy on thepart of the reluctant prophet.

NewTestament

Thedepiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of theOT, but there are important developments.

Jesustells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt.6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Although recent scholarship hasdemonstrated that “Abba” is not the equivalent of our“daddy,” it expresses a certain intimacy that goes beyondwhat was prevalent at the time, but retains an element of reverenceas well. God is not just “Father,” but “our Fatherin heaven” (Matt. 6:9). Even Jesus addresses God as “HolyFather” (John 17:11), “Righteous Father” (John17:25), and “Father, Lord of heaven and earth” (Matt.11:25). And Paul, as mentioned earlier, uses a buffer zone, rarely inhis epistles using the word “Father” by itself, butinstead referring to “God our Father” (e.g., Rom. 1:7)and frequently using the phrase “the God and Father of our LordJesus Christ” (Rom. 15:6; 2Cor. 1:3; 11:31; Eph. 1:3; cf.Eph. 1:17; Col. 1:3). God is our Father, but still he is a Fatherbefore whom one reverently kneels (Eph. 3:14).

Prayerto God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:19–20;John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26). While there is some debate as tothe exact nuance of this idea, it seems clear that, at the veryleast, prayers in Jesus’ name need to be ones that Jesus wouldaffirm and are in accordance with his holy character and expressedwill. It is, in essence, saying to God that the prayer being offeredis one that Jesus would approve.

Prayercan also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him inthe early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Theinstances of this in the NT are rare, however, and generally eitherexclamatory or rhetorical (Acts 7:59; 1Cor. 16:22; Rev. 22:20).The norm would still seem to be that prayer is to be made to theFather, through Jesus’ name.

Unlikeanything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for theirenemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke23:34; Acts 7:60).

TheHoly Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we areable to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is tobe done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor.14:15).

Jesusencourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).

Jesusbecomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions(Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points(Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offersprayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers thatare (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and notgive up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overlyliteralized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb.5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and evennow, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, ourintercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb.4:14–16).

Pine Tree

Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).

Pray

A distinction needs to be made between the variousoccurrences of the words “pray” and “prayer”in most translations of the Bible and the modern connotation of thesame words. In the OT, the main Hebrew words translated as “topray” and “prayer” (palal and tepillah) refer tothe act of bringing a petition or request before God. They do notnormally, if ever, refer to the other elements that we today think ofas being included in the act of praying, such as praise orthanksgiving. The same is the case in the NT, where the main Greekwords translated “topray” and “prayer” (proseuchomai and proseuchē)also specifically denote making a petition or request to God. Butother words and constructions in both Testaments are also translated“to pray” and “prayer,” and this article willdeal with the larger concept,including praise, thanksgiving, petition, and confession, as opposedto the narrower meaning of the particular Hebrew and Greek terms (seealso Praise; Thanksgiving; Worship).

OldTestament

Inthe OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modernways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayerdoes not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer toGod, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray tohumans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction betweenthe sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in theOT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, suchas that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. Theseshould be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, butrather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” inrecognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. Inthe NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.

Manyof the prayers in the OT are explicitly set in a covenantal context.God owes nothing to his creatures, but God has sworn to be faithfulto those with whom he has entered into covenant. Thus, many OTprayers specifically appeal to the covenant as a motivation for boththose praying and God’s answering (1Kings 8:23–25;Neh. 1:5–11; 9:32; Pss. 25:10–11; 44:17–26; 74:20;89:39–49). In postexilic books such as Ezra, Nehemiah, andDaniel, an important feature in the recorded prayers is the use ofprior Scripture, praying God’s words (many times covenantal)back to him (in the NT, see Acts 4:24–30). Also, the closenessengendered by the covenant relationship between God and his peoplewas unique in the ancient Near Eastern context. So Moses can marvel,“What other nation is so great as to have their gods near themthe way the Lord our God is near us whenever we pray to him?”(Deut. 4:7).

Prayermust be made from a heart that is right toward God. There is noguarantee that God will hear every prayer (Ps. 66:18; Prov. 1:28;Isa. 1:15; 59:2). For the most part, the “rightness” thatGod requires in prayer is “a broken and contrite heart”(Ps. 51:17; cf. Isa. 66:2).

Althoughseveral passages talk about prayer in the context of sacrifice (e.g.,Gen. 13:4), there is surprisingly little emphasis on prayer in thelegal texts about sacrifice in the Pentateuch, no prescriptions forthe kinds of prayer or the words that are to be said in connectionwith the sacrifices. Interestingly, however, in later, perhapspostexilic contexts, where there is no temple and therefore nosacrifice, we find texts such as Ps. 141:2, where the petitioner asksGod to accept prayer as if it were an offering of incense and theevening sacrifice (cf. Prov. 15:8; in the NT, see Rev. 5:8).

Apresupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and mayindeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is notprimarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of theone praying, but rather about God changing the circumstances of theone praying.

Thereis a striking honesty, some would even say brashness, evident in manyOT prayers. Jeremiah laments that God has deceived both the people(Jer. 4:10) and Jeremiah himself (20:7) and complains about God’sjustice (12:1–4). Job stands, as it were, in God’s faceand demands that the Almighty answer his questions (Job 31:35–37).The psalmist accuses God of having broken his covenant promises (Ps.89:39). While it is true that God does, to some extent, rebukeJeremiah and Job (Jer. 12:5; Job 38–42), he does not ignorethem or cast them aside. This would seem, ultimately, to encouragesuch honesty and boldness on the part of those who pray.

Literarily,accounts of prayers in narratives serve to provide characterizationsof the ones praying. The recorded prayers of people such as Abraham,Moses, Hannah, Ezra, and Nehemiah demonstrate their true piety andhumility before God. By contrast, the prayer of Jonah recorded inJon. 2, in its narrative context, betrays a certain hypocrisy on thepart of the reluctant prophet.

NewTestament

Thedepiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of theOT, but there are important developments.

Jesustells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt.6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Although recent scholarship hasdemonstrated that “Abba” is not the equivalent of our“daddy,” it expresses a certain intimacy that goes beyondwhat was prevalent at the time, but retains an element of reverenceas well. God is not just “Father,” but “our Fatherin heaven” (Matt. 6:9). Even Jesus addresses God as “HolyFather” (John 17:11), “Righteous Father” (John17:25), and “Father, Lord of heaven and earth” (Matt.11:25). And Paul, as mentioned earlier, uses a buffer zone, rarely inhis epistles using the word “Father” by itself, butinstead referring to “God our Father” (e.g., Rom. 1:7)and frequently using the phrase “the God and Father of our LordJesus Christ” (Rom. 15:6; 2Cor. 1:3; 11:31; Eph. 1:3; cf.Eph. 1:17; Col. 1:3). God is our Father, but still he is a Fatherbefore whom one reverently kneels (Eph. 3:14).

Prayerto God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:19–20;John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26). While there is some debate as tothe exact nuance of this idea, it seems clear that, at the veryleast, prayers in Jesus’ name need to be ones that Jesus wouldaffirm and are in accordance with his holy character and expressedwill. It is, in essence, saying to God that the prayer being offeredis one that Jesus would approve.

Prayercan also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him inthe early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Theinstances of this in the NT are rare, however, and generally eitherexclamatory or rhetorical (Acts 7:59; 1Cor. 16:22; Rev. 22:20).The norm would still seem to be that prayer is to be made to theFather, through Jesus’ name.

Unlikeanything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for theirenemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke23:34; Acts 7:60).

TheHoly Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we areable to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is tobe done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor.14:15).

Jesusencourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).

Jesusbecomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions(Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points(Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offersprayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers thatare (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and notgive up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overlyliteralized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb.5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and evennow, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, ourintercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb.4:14–16).

Prayer

A distinction needs to be made between the variousoccurrences of the words “pray” and “prayer”in most translations of the Bible and the modern connotation of thesame words. In the OT, the main Hebrew words translated as “topray” and “prayer” (palal and tepillah) refer tothe act of bringing a petition or request before God. They do notnormally, if ever, refer to the other elements that we today think ofas being included in the act of praying, such as praise orthanksgiving. The same is the case in the NT, where the main Greekwords translated “topray” and “prayer” (proseuchomai and proseuchē)also specifically denote making a petition or request to God. Butother words and constructions in both Testaments are also translated“to pray” and “prayer,” and this article willdeal with the larger concept,including praise, thanksgiving, petition, and confession, as opposedto the narrower meaning of the particular Hebrew and Greek terms (seealso Praise; Thanksgiving; Worship).

OldTestament

Inthe OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modernways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayerdoes not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer toGod, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray tohumans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction betweenthe sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in theOT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, suchas that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. Theseshould be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, butrather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” inrecognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. Inthe NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.

Manyof the prayers in the OT are explicitly set in a covenantal context.God owes nothing to his creatures, but God has sworn to be faithfulto those with whom he has entered into covenant. Thus, many OTprayers specifically appeal to the covenant as a motivation for boththose praying and God’s answering (1Kings 8:23–25;Neh. 1:5–11; 9:32; Pss. 25:10–11; 44:17–26; 74:20;89:39–49). In postexilic books such as Ezra, Nehemiah, andDaniel, an important feature in the recorded prayers is the use ofprior Scripture, praying God’s words (many times covenantal)back to him (in the NT, see Acts 4:24–30). Also, the closenessengendered by the covenant relationship between God and his peoplewas unique in the ancient Near Eastern context. So Moses can marvel,“What other nation is so great as to have their gods near themthe way the Lord our God is near us whenever we pray to him?”(Deut. 4:7).

Prayermust be made from a heart that is right toward God. There is noguarantee that God will hear every prayer (Ps. 66:18; Prov. 1:28;Isa. 1:15; 59:2). For the most part, the “rightness” thatGod requires in prayer is “a broken and contrite heart”(Ps. 51:17; cf. Isa. 66:2).

Althoughseveral passages talk about prayer in the context of sacrifice (e.g.,Gen. 13:4), there is surprisingly little emphasis on prayer in thelegal texts about sacrifice in the Pentateuch, no prescriptions forthe kinds of prayer or the words that are to be said in connectionwith the sacrifices. Interestingly, however, in later, perhapspostexilic contexts, where there is no temple and therefore nosacrifice, we find texts such as Ps. 141:2, where the petitioner asksGod to accept prayer as if it were an offering of incense and theevening sacrifice (cf. Prov. 15:8; in the NT, see Rev. 5:8).

Apresupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and mayindeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is notprimarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of theone praying, but rather about God changing the circumstances of theone praying.

Thereis a striking honesty, some would even say brashness, evident in manyOT prayers. Jeremiah laments that God has deceived both the people(Jer. 4:10) and Jeremiah himself (20:7) and complains about God’sjustice (12:1–4). Job stands, as it were, in God’s faceand demands that the Almighty answer his questions (Job 31:35–37).The psalmist accuses God of having broken his covenant promises (Ps.89:39). While it is true that God does, to some extent, rebukeJeremiah and Job (Jer. 12:5; Job 38–42), he does not ignorethem or cast them aside. This would seem, ultimately, to encouragesuch honesty and boldness on the part of those who pray.

Literarily,accounts of prayers in narratives serve to provide characterizationsof the ones praying. The recorded prayers of people such as Abraham,Moses, Hannah, Ezra, and Nehemiah demonstrate their true piety andhumility before God. By contrast, the prayer of Jonah recorded inJon. 2, in its narrative context, betrays a certain hypocrisy on thepart of the reluctant prophet.

NewTestament

Thedepiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of theOT, but there are important developments.

Jesustells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt.6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Although recent scholarship hasdemonstrated that “Abba” is not the equivalent of our“daddy,” it expresses a certain intimacy that goes beyondwhat was prevalent at the time, but retains an element of reverenceas well. God is not just “Father,” but “our Fatherin heaven” (Matt. 6:9). Even Jesus addresses God as “HolyFather” (John 17:11), “Righteous Father” (John17:25), and “Father, Lord of heaven and earth” (Matt.11:25). And Paul, as mentioned earlier, uses a buffer zone, rarely inhis epistles using the word “Father” by itself, butinstead referring to “God our Father” (e.g., Rom. 1:7)and frequently using the phrase “the God and Father of our LordJesus Christ” (Rom. 15:6; 2Cor. 1:3; 11:31; Eph. 1:3; cf.Eph. 1:17; Col. 1:3). God is our Father, but still he is a Fatherbefore whom one reverently kneels (Eph. 3:14).

Prayerto God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:19–20;John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26). While there is some debate as tothe exact nuance of this idea, it seems clear that, at the veryleast, prayers in Jesus’ name need to be ones that Jesus wouldaffirm and are in accordance with his holy character and expressedwill. It is, in essence, saying to God that the prayer being offeredis one that Jesus would approve.

Prayercan also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him inthe early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Theinstances of this in the NT are rare, however, and generally eitherexclamatory or rhetorical (Acts 7:59; 1Cor. 16:22; Rev. 22:20).The norm would still seem to be that prayer is to be made to theFather, through Jesus’ name.

Unlikeanything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for theirenemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke23:34; Acts 7:60).

TheHoly Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we areable to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is tobe done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1Cor.14:15).

Jesusencourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).

Jesusbecomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions(Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points(Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offersprayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers thatare (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and notgive up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overlyliteralized “pray without ceasing” in 1Thess. 5:17NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb.5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and evennow, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, ourintercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb.4:14–16).

Precious Stones

Precious stones appear in visions and theophanies in theBible. Examples include Ezek. 1:16; 10:1; Rev. 4:3. These preciousstones, also used in jewelry, were well known to people in theancient Near East and in the first-century Mediterranean basin.

Jewelryknown in antiquity is broadly divided into two groups: everydayjewelry and fine jewelry. Everyday jewelry, found commonly among thepeople, was made of materials such as bronze, iron, and bone. Finejewelry, on the other hand, consisted of objects crafted from gold orsilver and included costly and precious stones. Jewelry was worn bothby men and women as part of clothing. The ancients also conservedwealth with investments in jewels or used jewels as indicators ofsocioeconomic placing in society.

Mostgold jewelry had sheet metal as its foundation. This sheet metal wasshaped and/or decorated. One form of decoration, filigree, involvedsoldering wiring in a pattern on a background. A later form ofdecoration known as granulation used tiny grains of gold as asubstitute for wires. An additional method of decorating jewelry wasinlaying with colored stones, glass, or other precious items.Engraving was likewise used for decoration.

Jewelryin Antiquity

Jewelryhas been discovered in Babylon dating back as far as 2700 BC.Examples of jewelry from this era were found in cemeteries in thecity of Ur. Examples of ancient jewelry were likewise found incemeteries on the island of Crete, dating back to 2400 BC. Otherspecimens of jewelry come from the Mycenaean world around 1100 BC.Jewelry dating after 800 BC was of high quality. During this periodplaces such as Knossos on Crete and cities such as Corinth and Athensproduced beautiful gold work.

Bythe seventh century BC, the finest jewelry was found on the Greekislands and in Asia Minor. Jewelry in Ephesus was offered to thegoddess Diana, yet was also made for personal adornment. By 600 BC,jewelry became very scarce in Greece. This scarcity lasted for thenext 150 years. Archaeologists postulate that supplies of gold werecut off by the Persians. After the Persians were defeated during theClassical period, some of the finest gold work was produced. CapturedPersian treasures and exploitation of Macedonian mines made gold andprecious stones and metals highly accessible to the Greeks.Consequently, jewelry was readily available during the Hellenisticperiod. The Greeks incorporated a variety of stones in their jewelry:carnelian, chalcedony, amethyst, and garnet, as well as small pearls.Materials and inspiration for the Greeks for certain types of jewelrycame from newly conquered territories. In the early Roman Empirejewelry resembled that seen during the Hellenistic period. Ingeneral, during the Greek and the Roman periods, jewelry wasgold-plated and decorated with costly stones.

Certainwriters in antiquity documented well-known or costly jewelry andprecious stones. One Roman historian described the value of pearls asthe “topmost rank among all things of price.”Correspondingly, he wrote about two pearls owned by Cleopatra, queenof Egypt, known as the largest in history. The Egyptian Book of theDead, dating to around 1500 BC, makes mention of amulets in the shapeof hearts, considered jewelry by some experts. These amulets weremade of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and green feldspar.

Jewelryin the biblical world was known by different terms. An ornamentalcirclet worn singly or as multiples on one’s arms or legs wasknown as a “bangle.” This term, however, does not occurin the Bible. The abundant presence of bangles as artifacts inarchaeological digs is an indicator of their significance in everydaylife in the biblical world. Bangles were stiff ornaments ofrelatively heavy weight. Materials varied: bronze, iron, silver,gold, and so forth. Bangles were of three types: bracelets, anklets,and armlets. They were either solid, complete circles or circletswith two distinct ends. These ends had specific designs, oftenartistically crafted in the shape of animal heads, such as those ofserpents.

Ringslikewise were prevalent in the biblical world. Rings were worn in theears, nose, and around fingers and toes. Nose rings were popularduring the Iron Age (1200–586 BC). In addition, rings were wornon neck cords. Rings not only were worn as articles of adornment butalso were used as signets. Brooches or pins mostly were worn onclothing and were made of wood, bronze, iron, silver, or gold.

Amuletswere common as religious jewelry. Worn as divine protection fromharm, amulets varied from simple to ornate. Egyptian amulets oftenincorporated snake imagery or representations of Egyptian gods.Ancient Near Eastern amulets often were smaller than an inch wide.Greek amulets were colorful and crafted from stones. Christianamulets in the shape of the crucified Christ have also been found.

Althoughnot often worn individually, beads were the most prevalent jewelryitem in the ancient Near East. Beads were strung in bracelets, rings,circlets, and so forth.

Jewelryin the Bible

Manydifferent items of jewelry are found in the Bible, including earrings(Gen. 35:4; Exod. 35:22; Judg. 8:24–26; Job 42:11), bracelets(Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Num. 31:50), necklaces (Gen. 41:42; Ezek. 16:11;Dan. 5:29), nose rings (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12),rings (Gen. 38:18, 25; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36; 35:22; 39:14, 30;Num. 31:50; 1Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; Job38:14; Isa. 3:21; Jer. 22:24; Hos. 2:13; Luke 15:22; James 2:2),headbands (Exod. 13:16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18), armlets (Num. 31:50;2Sam. 1:10; Isa. 3:20), pendants (Judg. 8:21, 26; Isa. 3:18),and anklets (Isa. 3:20).

Variousarticles of jewelry in the Bible carried significance beyond mereaesthetics. Early in Genesis, bracelets were used to signify thedesire for covenantal marriage. When Abraham’s servantdiscovered Rebekah, a potential bride for Isaac, he gave her a nosering and placed bracelets on her arms to signify that God had chosenher (Gen. 24:22, 47). The bracelets and nose ring weighed over tenshekels. By placing the jewelry on Rebekah’s arm, the servantindicated that a marriage contract was sought. The high value of thejewelry signifies the high bridal price paid for Rebekah.

Earlyin the OT, jewelry was used in temple worship. The law designatedthat the high priest’s breastpiece and ephod contain preciousstones along with setting stones. The stones signified the majestyand holiness of God as his people worshiped in his holy temple (Exod.25:7; 35:9).

Loversflattered one another by comparing physical features to articles offine jewelry (Song 5:14) and admiring their fine jewelry (4:9). God’speople appear as a jeweled necklace when God gathers them (Isa.49:18) and are as highly esteemed as a bride adorned with jewels(61:10).

Biblicalauthors also challenged people’s desire for jewelry withadmonitions to seek godly attributes and gifts of God above jewelsand jewelry. Wisdom was to be desired above jewels (Prov. 3:15;8:11), knowledgeable speech above gold and jewels (20:15), and agodly spouse far above jewels (31:10).

Similarto the habits of most ancient cultures, Israelite kings and othernotable leaders wore jewelry of special significance. Like otherkings of antiquity, Saul wore armlets and a crown (2Sam. 1:10),which were intended to signify royalty and competence in militaryaffairs. Such jewelry typically carried insignias that denotedfeatures of national and royal identity. The victorious warrior inRev. 19 wears many diadems (crowns) in order to signify his unmatchedpower (19:12). He has more than one crown, and even more than sevendiadems, which is the number of diadems that the dragon has (12:3).

Attimes, jewelry carried negative connotations, especially whenacquired within polytheistic trends of society or else designed as anobject of worship. Even Jacob was found burying his jewelry thataccompanied his foreign idols (Gen. 35:4). Such instances lendcredence to theories that even early Hebrew faith wrangled withpolytheism and was infused with its many golden artifacts. Gideonmade an ephod from the sparkling plunder (rings and pendants) of theMidianites (Judg. 8:21). This ephod became an object of worship forthe Israelites and greatly offended God.

Kingshad signet rings that contained their own personalized engravings.The engravings were made by stonecutters who carefully worked thesmall semiprecious stones atop the rings. Throughout the OT, ringswere used to make impressions on official documents (Exod. 28:11;1Kings 21:8; Esther 8:8). Prophets used signet rings to sealprophecies that were of grave importance for the nation (Isa. 8:16;Jer. 32:10). Unique rings were designed by notable families in orderto signify the honor of the patriarch. Of special interest is theusage of the ring in Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son. Thering was placed on the returning son’s finger to show theradical grace of the father, who was willing to join his honor to hisson’s shame (Luke 15:22) as the son was brought back into thehousehold.

Incertain NT writings, women are admonished not to adorn themselveswith external jewelry (1Tim. 2:9; 1Pet. 3:3), as this wasa sign of materialism and immodesty. In Rev. 21, jewels appear inJohn’s depiction of the new Jerusalem: it is a city of majesticbeauty adorned with precious jewels, gates of pearls, and streets ofgold (21:18–21).

Ras Shamra

In 1928 a Syrian peasant farmer stumbled by chance onto afunerary vault of ancient provenance about half a mile from theMediterranean coastline of Syria and about six miles north of themodern-day city of Latakia. This unforeseen discovery led to anarchaeological excavation of Tell Ras Shamra (Cape Fennel) by theeminent French excavator Claude Schaeffer. What Schaeffer’steam unearthed was not merely an ancient tomb, but a city completewith palaces, private homes, temples, and streets paved with stone.

Withinthe first year of excavation, the ruins of Ugarit yielded a cache ofclay tablets bearing a cuneiform script in a language hithertounknown. From these mysterious texts scholars deciphered analphabetic script written in a West Semitic language related toCanaanite, Arabic, and biblical Hebrew.

TheKingdom of Ugarit

Thesite of the ancient city of Ugarit, Tell Ras Shamra, is enclosed bytwo small rivers that flow westward into the Mediterranean Sea. Thepresence of water ensured the fertility of the surrounding plain;thus a good crop of cereals, grapes, and olives was available tosupplement the fishing industry as a local supply of food. Thekingdom encompassed about twelve hundred square miles, bounded by thenatural geography of the region. To the west of the site lies theMediterranean, with a port that supplied an important route forinternational trade. To the south, the east, and the north aremountain ranges, including Mount Zaphon, whose majesty is recorded inIsa. 14:13. Indeed, the name “Zaphon” becomes simply ageneral word for “north” in biblical Hebrew.

Thesite of Tell Ras Shamra was occupied as far back as Neolithic times(seventh millennium BC), yet the kingdom of Ugarit properly dates tothe second millennium BC. The time of Ugarit’s greatestflourishing was the period just prior to its destruction: from thefourteenth to the twelfth centuries BC, during the Late Bronze Age.The prosperity of the kingdom reached its height during this period.Ugarit’s coastal access and strategic location as a central hubwithin the matrix of Late Bronze Age superpowers made Ugarit animportant focal point for international trade routes, both maritimeand overland. Late Bronze Age Ugaritic society was diverse andcosmopolitan, a feature perhaps best epitomized by its scribaltraining center, in which tablets bearing inscriptions in severaldifferent languages have been discovered.

Around1200 BC, in approximately the same time frame as the exodus of theHebrews from Egypt, Ugarit met an untimely demise. (Note that somebiblical scholars date the exodus from Egypt during the fifteenthcentury BC rather than the thirteenth.) Royal documents from theEgyptian and Hittite kingdoms, as well as one from Ugarit, record aconcern over a group of invaders known as the Sea Peoples. The SeaPeoples likely originated in the northwest, leaving their mark on thecoasts of Turkey, Cyprus, and the Levant. The descendants of theinvading Sea Peoples remained on the coast of Palestine, and thebiblical text refers to them as the Philistines. The destruction ofUgarit is attributed to these invaders from the sea. Thearchaeological remains of Tell Ras Shamra show that many homes wereabandoned as invaders set the city on fire. Ugarit burned to theground sometime between 1190 and 1185 BC.

TheTexts of Ugarit

Morethan fifteen hundred Ugaritic texts have been discovered sinceexcavations began at Tell Ras Shamra. The texts are written ontablets with wedgelike markings impressed into the clay by scribesusing a triangular-shaped reed stylus. The majority of the texts ofUgarit were found in and around the remains of the royal palacegrounds and temples, but some were found in the homes of high-rankingpalace administrators and businessmen. The subject matter of thesetexts is diverse, and the various genres of written material fromUgarit include official letters, administrative and economic texts,scribal training texts, and religious and literary texts. Thecosmopolitan character of Ugarit is also reflected in its texts.Among the various tablets discovered, many were written in Akkadian,which was the lingua franca of the Late Bronze Age in this region.Still other texts were written in various ancient Near Easternlanguages; Hurrian, Hittite, and Cypro-Minoan, and Egyptianhieroglyphs were found inscribed into some artifacts, as well as uponcylinder seals.

Letters.Theletter documents of Ugarit are formal in style with scriptedintroductions and closings, like most royal letters from the ancientNear East. Two notable examples may be pointed out. The first is aletter from the king of Tyre in Phoenicia (for Iron Age references tothe city of Tyre, see Josh. 19:29; 2Sam. 5:11; Ezek. 28) to theking of Ugarit. The occasion of the letter is the shipwreck of aUgaritic trade vessel bound for Egypt that crashed on the coastlineof Phoenicia after a violent storm. The king of Tyre writes that noneof the ship’s crew survived, and its cargo was lost at sea. Asecond epistolary example is a letter written by the king ofCarchemish in the Hittite Empire (see Isa. 10:9; Jer. 46:2) to thelast king of Ugarit, Ammurapi. The occasion of this epistle is theHittite king’s perceived mistreatment of his daughter who wasmarried to Ammurapi. The letter suggests an impending divorce betweenthe royal couple, detailing the division of their joint property.

Administrativeand economic texts. Theroyal palace and temples provided the driving engine of Ugarit’seconomy. Many discovered texts shed light upon the kinds of goods andactivities that comprised local and international trade. Examples ofadministrative texts include lists of various towns within thekingdom of Ugarit, tributes that such towns paid to the king in theform of goods or labor service, lists of temple personnel withaccompanying salaries, and details of distributed goods to those inroyal service. Examples of economic texts include purchase receiptsand bills of lading from maritime trade for products such as wool,grains, olives, milk, and metal ore.

Scribaltraining texts. Amongthe rich archives of texts at Ugarit, more than one hundred tabletsbear witness to scribal training activities scattered throughout thecity grounds. Scribes were universally employed by royal empiresduring the Late Bronze Age, but the sheer number of texts (thousands)found at Ugarit is unusual for a relatively small excavation site.Archives of texts were found in groups throughout the city, and inmany of these archives excavators found tablets of special interest,called “abecedaries.” An abecedary is a tablet on whichthe cuneiform alphabet is written. The Ugaritic alphabet containedthirty signs in roughly the same order as the Hebrew alphabet,largely the same in content as the English alphabet. In addition toUgaritic abecedaries, a Ugaritic-Akkadian abecedary was found inwhich equivalent phonetic values are given from the Ugaritic alphabetinto Akkadian signs. Lexicons, or word lists, also were discovered,listing words from various ancient Near Eastern languages. Indeed,some of the tablets found in the archives are clearly practicetablets used to train scribes: these tablets display clear signswritten by a scribal teacher at the top of the tablet, with the lessskilled markings of the apprentice scribe written below. Thus, it islikely that Ugarit served as a training center for scribes from allover the ancient Near East, as well as its own.

Religioustexts. Twolarge temples dominate the northern acropolis region of Ugarit: thetemple of Baal, the god of fertility, and the temple of Dagon, thegod of grain. Mythology was the vehicle of religious expression inthe ancient Near East. Stories about the gods communicated somethingof the gods’ purposes and realms of authority. In themythological literature of Ugarit, the pantheon of gods dwelt onMount Zaphon, and from the dwelling place of El, the high god, riversof life-giving water flowed. The name “El” was sharedamong Semitic languages and religions throughout the ancient NearEast, including the OT. The name “El” in the Bible canrefer either to a foreign god (e.g., Deut. 3:24: “What god[’el] is there in heaven or on earth who can do the deeds andmighty works you do?”) or to the God of Israel (e.g., Gen.49:25; Deut. 7:9; Ps. 68:19–20). In the pantheon of Ugarit,El’s female consort was the goddess Asherah (1Kings18:19; Judg. 3:7).

El,however, was a more distant god in the religion of Ugarit, and thecity’s patron god was Baal, the storm god. Baal was associatedwith fertile fields, abundant crops, and the birth of sons anddaughters. The goddess Anat is sometimes described as Baal’sconsort, and at other times as Baal’s sister. Anat is thegoddess of war, and the epic mythological literature of Ugaritportrays her warfare in rather graphic and gruesome detail. Somescholars claim that Prov. 7:22–23 alludes to Anat’swarfare in the portrayal of the adulterous woman.

Someof the same epithets and accomplishments of Baal found in thereligious texts of Ugarit are also attributed to Yahweh in the OT.For example, Baal is called the “Rider of the Clouds” inUgaritic literature, and a similar description of Yahweh is found inPss. 68:4 (“Extol him who rides on the clouds”) and 104:3(“He makes the clouds his chariot and rides on the wings of thewind”). This likely reflects a common ancient Near Easternconcern over the regularity of rain for producing crops, as well as abiblical assertion that Yahweh is superior to Canaanite deities, suchas Baal, who claim authority over the forces of nature. Indeed, theOT mocks the impotence of the Canaanite deity Baal to wield powerover the forces of nature in narratives such as Elijah versus theprophets of Baal (1Kings 18:16–45).

Baalis also portrayed in the religious literature of Ugarit as the godwho conquered the rival gods Sea (Yam) and Death (Motu). The OT givessimilar portrayals of Israel’s God in texts such as Gen. 1:2;Isa. 25:7–8. In Gen. 1:2 God’s Spirit “was hoveringover the waters,” “the deep,” or the primordialwaters from which God brings to life the created world and all ofnature (cf. Job 38:8–11). In Isa. 25:7–8 Yahweh isportrayed as more powerful than death in a text of praise that extolshis power by saying that “he will swallow up death forever.”Again the biblical texts rely upon a stock set of religious symbols,language, and imagery common to ancient Near Eastern peoples toportray Yahweh, the all-powerful, one God of Israel.

Conclusion

Thediscovery of Ugarit was an earthshaking event for biblical studies.Scholars have only begun to garner the gems of knowledge hiddenwithin the remains of this lost civilization. The study of theUgaritic language is invaluable for better understanding biblicalHebrew. Ugaritic sheds light particularly upon rare words and phrasesused in the biblical text, as well as upon literary devices andpoetic structure, such as parallelism and meter. Furthermore, thestudy of Ugarit’s religion illuminates the backdrop ofCanaanite worship, against which is set the worship of Yahweh in theOT. Ugarit provides for us a snapshot of Late Bronze Age Canaan, thecrucible of ancient Near Eastern culture from which the Hebrew Biblewas birthed.

Reptiles

Terminology.Themodern scientific category of reptiles (air-breathing, cold-bloodedvertebrates) has no precise equivalent in the biblical vocabulary.The Hebrews described creatures by the way they moved, as “crawlingthings” (zakhal[Deut.32:24; Mic. 7:17]), “creeping things” (remes[Gen. 1:25–26]), and “swarming things” (sherets[Gen. 7:21]). All these terms, which probably overlapped, includedboth reptiles and small mammals.

Nakhash(e.g., Gen. 3) is the commonest general term for snakes and otherreptiles. Rarer terms are tannin(translated “snake” in Exod. 7:9, but more usuallymeaning a mythical “dragon”) and sarap(used, on its own or qualifying nakhash, of the fiery serpents inNum. 21:6, 8; Isa. 14:29; 30:6). In Greek, herpeton(Acts 10:12; 11:6; Rom. 1:23; James 3:7) includes snakes and lizards,while the generic word for snake is ophis(e.g., Matt. 7:10).

Besidesthese general terms, Scripture mentions the following: (1)thecrocodile (liwyatan)found in Egypt and Israel and sometimes portrayed in poetry as amythical monster (Job 3:8; 41:1; Pss. 74:14; 104:26; Isa. 27:1);(2)a variety of lizards, probably including geckos, skinks, andchameleons (Lev. 11:29, 30; Prov. 30:28); (3)a variety ofpoisonous snakes, including the cobra, or asp (Deut. 32:33; Rom.3:13), and the viper, or adder (Isa. 59:5; Acts 28:3).

Althoughtortoises are common in the Middle East, the KJV translation of theHebrew word tsabas “tortoise” in Lev. 11:29 almost certainly is wrong.However, since at least eighty kinds of reptile are found in Israel,precise identifications beyond this are difficult.

Reptilesin the Bible. Thesnake is an important image in Scripture. It is a snake that temptsAdam and Eve (Gen. 3:1; 2Cor. 11:3), and in the first promiseof salvation God says that the seed of woman will crush the snake’shead (Gen. 3:15). From that moment, the snake is condemned to crawlon its belly and eat dust (Gen. 3:14; Isa. 65:25).

Allsuch crawling creatures were unclean in OT law (Lev. 11:29–31).Although some Middle Eastern snakes are nonpoisonous, the OT alwaysportrays snakes as harmful as well as unclean (Deut. 8:15; 32:24, 33;Job 20:14, 16; Eccles. 10:8, 11; Isa. 30:6; Amos 5:19; Matt. 7:10;Luke 11:11). Because the venom was associated with the snake’stongue, the snake was a symbol of treacherous, lying speech as wellas of physical danger (Gen. 49:17; Pss. 58:4; 140:3; Prov. 23:32;Isa. 14:29; Jer. 8:17; 51:34; Matt. 23:33; Rev. 9:19), shrewdness(Matt. 10:16), and degradation (Mic. 7:17). For snakes to be renderedharmless was a sign of divine intervention (Ps. 91:13) and of themessianic age (Isa. 11:8; Luke 10:19; Mark 16:18). Paul and Johnidentify the snake in Eden with Satan and look forward to his totaldestruction in the last days (Rom. 16:20; Rev. 12:9–17;20:2–3).

Snakesfeature three times in biblical miracles. First, Aaron’s rodwas transformed into a serpent that, when Pharaoh’s magiciansreplicated the feat, devoured the magicians’ serpents (Exod.7:10–15; cf. 4:3–4). This would have impressed Pharaohall the more because the snake was a symbol of the pharaoh’spower. Second, when God sent poisonous snakes to punish theIsraelites, who repented, God told Moses to set up a bronze snake ona pole; anyone who looked at the bronze snake (which only much laterbecame an object of idolatry) was saved (Num. 21:6–9; 2Kings18:4). This prefigured the cross, on which Christ became a curse forus (John 3:14; 1Cor. 10:9; Gal. 3:10). Third, Paul was bittenby a snake and suffered no harm (Acts 28:3–6).

Sash

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

Serpent

The serpent (nakhash) initially appears in Gen. 3:1, endowedwith wisdom and the capacity to speak. In addressing Eve, itintentionally changes God’s positive command to eat from alltrees of the garden, with one exception, to a comprehensiveprohibition and then goes on to contradict God and promise thateating will make Adam and Eve “like God, knowing good and evil”(3:5). While an explicit identity for the serpent is not given atthis point, the curse pronounced against the creature (Gen. 3:14–15)has transcendent implications (cf. Rom. 16:20). By the firstcenturies BC and AD, the serpent became linked with the malevolentfigure of Satan, the devil, the great dragon. This connection is mostcomprehensively articulated for the Christian community in Rev.12:9–15; 20:2. Eve acknowledged its deceptive wiles (Gen.3:13), a point that both Jesus (John 8:44) and Paul (2Cor.11:3) reinforce.

Deadlysnakes were recognized and feared denizens of the great and terriblewilderness (Deut. 8:15) as the Israelites made their way toward thepromised land. When the people spoke against God and Moses, God sentburning serpents that bit the people (Num. 21:6–9). Moses’action in elevating a bronze serpent on the pole served as theparadigm for Jesus’ reference to lifting up the Son of Man(John 3:14) and the necessity of belief in the unlikely prospect of acrucified Messiah. Later, this bronze snake became an object ofworship, and Hezekiah destroyed it (2Kings 18:4). Becauseserpents were so dangerous, their venom was a figure for utterlydestructive evil (Ps. 140:3).

Isaiah27:1 moves the sphere of activities from barren wilderness totumultuous water: “In that day, the Lord will punish with hissword—his fierce, great and powerful sword—Leviathan thegliding serpent, Leviathan the coiling serpent; he will slay themonster of the sea.” The same motif is evident in Ps. 74:13–14,which declares that God broke the “heads” of the seamonsters and smashed the “heads” of Leviathan (cf. Gen.3:15). The “fleeing serpent” of Isaiah also appears inJob 26:12–13, which describes God cutting Rahab in pieces andpiercing the “gliding serpent.” Around the central figureof the serpent, a land creature, are watery glimpses of the mythicand shadowy Leviathan, a sea monster, and Rahab, all of whichrepresent a creature opposed by God. It is likely that thismalevolent cosmic figure is lurking below the surface of thecrocodile-infested waters of Job 41, a subtle but powerful closure tothe contest with which the book commenced; although Job could notrestrain Leviathan, God does.

Themotifs that recur in these passages were also part of the mythologiesof cultures surrounding ancient Israel. The Enuma Elish (a Babyloniancreation story) depicts the violent battle between the goddess Tiamatand the god Marduk that involved monster-serpents and roaringdragons. Closer to Israelite culture, in the Canaanite myth of Baaland Anat, we read that Anat claimed to crush the crooked serpent withseven heads. Just as serpents and related figures in the biblicaltext occasionally crossed the flexible boundaries between good andevil, in the wider cultural context of the ancient Near East theserpent served as a metaphor for a vast complex that included life,fertility, and wisdom, as well as chaos and death.

Forthe Christian community receiving the Revelation of John, “thegreat dragon, that ancient serpent” (20:2), presented apowerful metaphor. Wise, shrewd, quick, beguiling, and terrifying, ithad been in opposition to God in the age-old conflict between goodand evil, the reality of which was expressed across culturalboundaries and a part of which was enveloping the church in the RomanEmpire of late antiquity. Even its defeat was not instantaneous; the“head” of the serpent, struck by the death andresurrection of Jesus Christ, would bear one final blow; the cosmicevil would be ultimately and completely defeated to accomplish thepurposes of God. See also Venomous Serpent.

Starry Host

A KJV phrase used to describe the heavenly bodies or heavenlybeings. The NIV prefers “starry host(s),” “multitudesof heaven,” or “stars in the heavens/sky,” but“host of the heavens” does occur in Dan. 8:10. The Hebrewphrase, tseba’ hashamayim, means literally “army of theheavens.” The connection between the celestial elements and anarmy comes in conjunction with God’s role as the commander ofthe Israelite forces (Josh. 5:13–15; Judg. 5:23). There aretimes when the Bible portrays the celestial elements as part of God’smilitary retinue, fighting on his behalf. The stars fight from heavenagainst Sisera (Judg. 5:20), and in the Israelites’ battleagainst the Amorites, the sun and the moon are commanded to standstill (Josh. 10:12–13; cf. Hab. 3:11). Based on these passages,the phrase may have had some military background, but it is alsounderstood in other ways.

Perhapsone of the more enigmatic uses of the phrase occurs in 1Kings22:19 (cf. 2Chron. 18:18; NIV: “multitudes of heaven”),where it describes God’s council. There are other biblicalphrases used with more frequency to describe the heavenly councilsurrounding God. Other names for these beings include the “seraphim”of Isa. 6:2 and the “sons of God” in Job 1:6; 2:1; Pss.29:1; 89:6. The connection between God’s council and thecelestial elements likely comes, as noted above, through the heavenlybodies’ association with God in battle. Further solidifyingthis connection is Job 38:7, where the “sons of God”parallel the “morning stars.” Exactly what these heavenlybeings are is debated, and many interpreters suggest the answer liesin the polytheistic context of Israel’s neighbors. Anotherpossible explanation is to view these beings as the messengers orangels of God. The Bible portrays them as inferior beings (Deut.3:24; 10:17; Jer. 10:6), and they function to serve and worshipYahweh (Pss. 29:1; 103:21; 148:2–3; Isa. 6:2). The angels whoappear to the shepherds at Jesus’ birth are described as the“heavenly host” (Luke 2:13).

Thelast and most frequent use of the phrase “host of heaven”is to describe a condemned object of Israelite worship. It is likelythat from their association with God’s council, these celestialelements gained an independent status and were worshiped apart fromGod. At times the “host of heaven” appears to refer tothe stars alone; the NIV therefore translates it as “stars inthe sky” (Deut. 17:3; Jer. 33:22; cf. Jer. 8:2) or “starryhosts” (2Kings 23:5). At other times the phrase refers tothe totality of the heavenly bodies (Deut. 4:19 [NIV: “heavenlyarray”]; cf. 2Kings 21:3, 5). Based on the distributionof the phrase, and its occurrence primarily in documents narratingthe Assyrian period (2Kings 17:16; 21:3, 5; 23:4–5; Jer.19:13; Zeph. 1:5), there is likely a direct correlation between theworship of the host of heaven and Israel’s Assyrian vassalagein the seventh century BC. The extent of Assyrian impact on Israelitereligion is debated, but it is likely that astral worship—thatis, worship of the starry hosts—flourished in this period dueto the influence of the Assyrians, a culture entrenched in worship ofthe astral powers.

Stewardship

The management of available resources in the recognition thatGod is the owner and provider of all things. The Bible is clear thatGod is the maker and owner of all things. The psalmist wrote, “Theearth is the Lord’s, and everything in it, the world, and allwho live in it” (Ps. 24:1). God told Job, “Everythingunder heaven belongs to me” (Job 41:11). In the same way, Godsays, “The silver is mine and the gold is mine” (Hag.2:8). Stewardship is based upon the principle that God is the makerof all things. Since God is the creator and owner of all things,God’s followers are charged with managing what he has given.

Theterm “steward” is used in the OT to refer to Joseph’ssteward (Gen. 43:19; 44:1, 4) and to Arza, who was the steward ofBaasha’s son Elah, who reigned over Israel (1Kings 16:9KJV). The steward was the manager who oversaw all householdoperations. Having a great deal of responsibility, the slave orservant in this position had to be someone whom the owner trusted.Jesus used similar terms in referring to a household manager in someof his parables (Matt. 20:8; Luke 16:1, 3). The concept ofstewardship is applied to the believer as God’s servant.Believers are stewards for God in the sense that they manage God’sresources in this world.

Thebiblical concept of stewardship begins with Adam and Eve beingcharged with the responsibility of caring for the creative work ofGod (Gen. 2:15). In the garden of Eden, humankind was given theresponsibility to care for the earth, manage it, and have dominionover it. On an individual level, all that Christians possess isintended to be used for God’s purposes and glory. Biblicalstewardship involves more than financial resources, althoughcertainly those are included. Proper stewardship involves managingevery resource (time, talent, finances, opportunity) under theleadership of God, who owns it all.

Regardingfinancial matters, the Bible teaches that a tithe (one-tenth) ofone’s income should be returned to God as a reminder that allone has comes from him (Lev. 27:30). The OT concept of the tithe isassumed by Jesus in Matt. 23:23 when he rebukes the scribes and thePharisees for tithing and yet neglecting more important things suchas justice and mercy. However, the tithe is not frequently mentionedin the NT. Rather than focusing on tithing, the NT focuses on theattitude of the believer in giving. Believers are encouraged to givesacrificially (Mark 12:41–44; Acts 2:44–45). In addition,Paul stresses giving in love with generosity (2Cor. 9:6–8).Giving to others in need is a reflection of trust that God willprovide for our own needs as we give to meet the needs of others. Godexpects that everything that one has will be used in ways that honorhim.

Sun

The sun was worshiped as a god or goddess in all the nationsaround Israel in OT times, and the polemic against sun worship inDeut. 4:19; 17:3; Jer. 8:2; Job 31:26–28 suggests that sunworship also made inroads into Israel. By way of contrast, the OTattests to the sun’s created status (Gen. 1:16) and counts itas subject to God’s control (e.g., Josh. 10:12–13).

Inthe OT, the sun often is associated with and symbolic of life (e.g.,Eccles. 7:11; cf. Ps. 58:8) or justice (Ps. 19:6; Job 38:13; Mal.4:2; cf. 2Sam. 23:3–4). The darkening of the sun ispresented as a sign of judgment heralding the day of the Lord (Isa.13:10; Ezek. 32:7; Joel 2:10, 31; 3:15; Amos 8:9; Matt. 24:29; Mark13:24; Rev. 6:12; 9:2), which many associate with the darkness thatfell during the crucifixion (Matt. 27:45; Mark 15:33; Luke 23:44).

Ugarit

In 1928 a Syrian peasant farmer stumbled by chance onto afunerary vault of ancient provenance about half a mile from theMediterranean coastline of Syria and about six miles north of themodern-day city of Latakia. This unforeseen discovery led to anarchaeological excavation of Tell Ras Shamra (Cape Fennel) by theeminent French excavator Claude Schaeffer. What Schaeffer’steam unearthed was not merely an ancient tomb, but a city completewith palaces, private homes, temples, and streets paved with stone.

Withinthe first year of excavation, the ruins of Ugarit yielded a cache ofclay tablets bearing a cuneiform script in a language hithertounknown. From these mysterious texts scholars deciphered analphabetic script written in a West Semitic language related toCanaanite, Arabic, and biblical Hebrew.

TheKingdom of Ugarit

Thesite of the ancient city of Ugarit, Tell Ras Shamra, is enclosed bytwo small rivers that flow westward into the Mediterranean Sea. Thepresence of water ensured the fertility of the surrounding plain;thus a good crop of cereals, grapes, and olives was available tosupplement the fishing industry as a local supply of food. Thekingdom encompassed about twelve hundred square miles, bounded by thenatural geography of the region. To the west of the site lies theMediterranean, with a port that supplied an important route forinternational trade. To the south, the east, and the north aremountain ranges, including Mount Zaphon, whose majesty is recorded inIsa. 14:13. Indeed, the name “Zaphon” becomes simply ageneral word for “north” in biblical Hebrew.

Thesite of Tell Ras Shamra was occupied as far back as Neolithic times(seventh millennium BC), yet the kingdom of Ugarit properly dates tothe second millennium BC. The time of Ugarit’s greatestflourishing was the period just prior to its destruction: from thefourteenth to the twelfth centuries BC, during the Late Bronze Age.The prosperity of the kingdom reached its height during this period.Ugarit’s coastal access and strategic location as a central hubwithin the matrix of Late Bronze Age superpowers made Ugarit animportant focal point for international trade routes, both maritimeand overland. Late Bronze Age Ugaritic society was diverse andcosmopolitan, a feature perhaps best epitomized by its scribaltraining center, in which tablets bearing inscriptions in severaldifferent languages have been discovered.

Around1200 BC, in approximately the same time frame as the exodus of theHebrews from Egypt, Ugarit met an untimely demise. (Note that somebiblical scholars date the exodus from Egypt during the fifteenthcentury BC rather than the thirteenth.) Royal documents from theEgyptian and Hittite kingdoms, as well as one from Ugarit, record aconcern over a group of invaders known as the Sea Peoples. The SeaPeoples likely originated in the northwest, leaving their mark on thecoasts of Turkey, Cyprus, and the Levant. The descendants of theinvading Sea Peoples remained on the coast of Palestine, and thebiblical text refers to them as the Philistines. The destruction ofUgarit is attributed to these invaders from the sea. Thearchaeological remains of Tell Ras Shamra show that many homes wereabandoned as invaders set the city on fire. Ugarit burned to theground sometime between 1190 and 1185 BC.

TheTexts of Ugarit

Morethan fifteen hundred Ugaritic texts have been discovered sinceexcavations began at Tell Ras Shamra. The texts are written ontablets with wedgelike markings impressed into the clay by scribesusing a triangular-shaped reed stylus. The majority of the texts ofUgarit were found in and around the remains of the royal palacegrounds and temples, but some were found in the homes of high-rankingpalace administrators and businessmen. The subject matter of thesetexts is diverse, and the various genres of written material fromUgarit include official letters, administrative and economic texts,scribal training texts, and religious and literary texts. Thecosmopolitan character of Ugarit is also reflected in its texts.Among the various tablets discovered, many were written in Akkadian,which was the lingua franca of the Late Bronze Age in this region.Still other texts were written in various ancient Near Easternlanguages; Hurrian, Hittite, and Cypro-Minoan, and Egyptianhieroglyphs were found inscribed into some artifacts, as well as uponcylinder seals.

Letters.Theletter documents of Ugarit are formal in style with scriptedintroductions and closings, like most royal letters from the ancientNear East. Two notable examples may be pointed out. The first is aletter from the king of Tyre in Phoenicia (for Iron Age references tothe city of Tyre, see Josh. 19:29; 2Sam. 5:11; Ezek. 28) to theking of Ugarit. The occasion of the letter is the shipwreck of aUgaritic trade vessel bound for Egypt that crashed on the coastlineof Phoenicia after a violent storm. The king of Tyre writes that noneof the ship’s crew survived, and its cargo was lost at sea. Asecond epistolary example is a letter written by the king ofCarchemish in the Hittite Empire (see Isa. 10:9; Jer. 46:2) to thelast king of Ugarit, Ammurapi. The occasion of this epistle is theHittite king’s perceived mistreatment of his daughter who wasmarried to Ammurapi. The letter suggests an impending divorce betweenthe royal couple, detailing the division of their joint property.

Administrativeand economic texts. Theroyal palace and temples provided the driving engine of Ugarit’seconomy. Many discovered texts shed light upon the kinds of goods andactivities that comprised local and international trade. Examples ofadministrative texts include lists of various towns within thekingdom of Ugarit, tributes that such towns paid to the king in theform of goods or labor service, lists of temple personnel withaccompanying salaries, and details of distributed goods to those inroyal service. Examples of economic texts include purchase receiptsand bills of lading from maritime trade for products such as wool,grains, olives, milk, and metal ore.

Scribaltraining texts. Amongthe rich archives of texts at Ugarit, more than one hundred tabletsbear witness to scribal training activities scattered throughout thecity grounds. Scribes were universally employed by royal empiresduring the Late Bronze Age, but the sheer number of texts (thousands)found at Ugarit is unusual for a relatively small excavation site.Archives of texts were found in groups throughout the city, and inmany of these archives excavators found tablets of special interest,called “abecedaries.” An abecedary is a tablet on whichthe cuneiform alphabet is written. The Ugaritic alphabet containedthirty signs in roughly the same order as the Hebrew alphabet,largely the same in content as the English alphabet. In addition toUgaritic abecedaries, a Ugaritic-Akkadian abecedary was found inwhich equivalent phonetic values are given from the Ugaritic alphabetinto Akkadian signs. Lexicons, or word lists, also were discovered,listing words from various ancient Near Eastern languages. Indeed,some of the tablets found in the archives are clearly practicetablets used to train scribes: these tablets display clear signswritten by a scribal teacher at the top of the tablet, with the lessskilled markings of the apprentice scribe written below. Thus, it islikely that Ugarit served as a training center for scribes from allover the ancient Near East, as well as its own.

Religioustexts. Twolarge temples dominate the northern acropolis region of Ugarit: thetemple of Baal, the god of fertility, and the temple of Dagon, thegod of grain. Mythology was the vehicle of religious expression inthe ancient Near East. Stories about the gods communicated somethingof the gods’ purposes and realms of authority. In themythological literature of Ugarit, the pantheon of gods dwelt onMount Zaphon, and from the dwelling place of El, the high god, riversof life-giving water flowed. The name “El” was sharedamong Semitic languages and religions throughout the ancient NearEast, including the OT. The name “El” in the Bible canrefer either to a foreign god (e.g., Deut. 3:24: “What god[’el] is there in heaven or on earth who can do the deeds andmighty works you do?”) or to the God of Israel (e.g., Gen.49:25; Deut. 7:9; Ps. 68:19–20). In the pantheon of Ugarit,El’s female consort was the goddess Asherah (1Kings18:19; Judg. 3:7).

El,however, was a more distant god in the religion of Ugarit, and thecity’s patron god was Baal, the storm god. Baal was associatedwith fertile fields, abundant crops, and the birth of sons anddaughters. The goddess Anat is sometimes described as Baal’sconsort, and at other times as Baal’s sister. Anat is thegoddess of war, and the epic mythological literature of Ugaritportrays her warfare in rather graphic and gruesome detail. Somescholars claim that Prov. 7:22–23 alludes to Anat’swarfare in the portrayal of the adulterous woman.

Someof the same epithets and accomplishments of Baal found in thereligious texts of Ugarit are also attributed to Yahweh in the OT.For example, Baal is called the “Rider of the Clouds” inUgaritic literature, and a similar description of Yahweh is found inPss. 68:4 (“Extol him who rides on the clouds”) and 104:3(“He makes the clouds his chariot and rides on the wings of thewind”). This likely reflects a common ancient Near Easternconcern over the regularity of rain for producing crops, as well as abiblical assertion that Yahweh is superior to Canaanite deities, suchas Baal, who claim authority over the forces of nature. Indeed, theOT mocks the impotence of the Canaanite deity Baal to wield powerover the forces of nature in narratives such as Elijah versus theprophets of Baal (1Kings 18:16–45).

Baalis also portrayed in the religious literature of Ugarit as the godwho conquered the rival gods Sea (Yam) and Death (Motu). The OT givessimilar portrayals of Israel’s God in texts such as Gen. 1:2;Isa. 25:7–8. In Gen. 1:2 God’s Spirit “was hoveringover the waters,” “the deep,” or the primordialwaters from which God brings to life the created world and all ofnature (cf. Job 38:8–11). In Isa. 25:7–8 Yahweh isportrayed as more powerful than death in a text of praise that extolshis power by saying that “he will swallow up death forever.”Again the biblical texts rely upon a stock set of religious symbols,language, and imagery common to ancient Near Eastern peoples toportray Yahweh, the all-powerful, one God of Israel.

Conclusion

Thediscovery of Ugarit was an earthshaking event for biblical studies.Scholars have only begun to garner the gems of knowledge hiddenwithin the remains of this lost civilization. The study of theUgaritic language is invaluable for better understanding biblicalHebrew. Ugaritic sheds light particularly upon rare words and phrasesused in the biblical text, as well as upon literary devices andpoetic structure, such as parallelism and meter. Furthermore, thestudy of Ugarit’s religion illuminates the backdrop ofCanaanite worship, against which is set the worship of Yahweh in theOT. Ugarit provides for us a snapshot of Late Bronze Age Canaan, thecrucible of ancient Near Eastern culture from which the Hebrew Biblewas birthed.

Yiron

(1)Sometimestransliterated “Yiron” (NASB, RSV, TEV, NET), “Iron”is the name of a town in the tribal inheritance of Naphtali (Josh.19:38). It is likely to be identified with the modern city of Yaroun,on the border between Israel and Lebanon.

(2)Amalleable metal derived from oxide ores that can be worked intowrought iron and steel. The earliest use of iron dates to the latefourth millennium BC. Old Kingdom Egyptian refers to iron as the“metal of heaven,” probably because the earliest piecesof iron were derived from meteoric iron. Small quantities of smeltedterrestrial iron have been found from the third millennium BC inEgypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. Due to technological advancementsand economic factors, iron gradually supplanted bronze as the mainutilitarian metal in the Levant by the Iron Age (1200–586BC).

Ironcould be mined or found on the surface (Deut. 8:9), but it had to beheated and hammered to remove its impurities. Wrought iron was softerthan hardened bronze, but through carburization, tempering, andquenching, iron became stronger and could hold an edge better thanbronze. Since ancient furnaces could not get hot enough to liquefyiron, it could not be cast into molds.

TheBible makes several general references to the mining, smelting, anduse of iron (Job 28:1; Isa. 44:12; Ezek. 22:20; Sir. 38:28). Genesisattributes the beginning of ironworking and other crafts to thelegendary descendants of Cain (Gen. 4:22). The shift in dominancefrom bronze to iron in the late second millennium BC may have beendue either to an international shortage of copper or a more localizedshortage of the wood required for the fuel-intensive production ofbronze. In Bible times, iron was forged (Isa. 44:12) rather thancast, as the high temperatures necessary to melt iron could not beachieved before the modern industrial age. Biblical references toiron furnaces pertain to smelting (Ezek. 22:20). While one passagedescribes the richness of the land of Canaan where, among otherthings, “rocks are iron” (Deut. 8:9), other passagesassociate ironworking with Egypt (Deut. 4:20; 1Kings 8:51; Jer.11:4) or Mesopotamia (Jer. 15:12). The Israelites perhaps lacked theskills to work in iron, as is suggested by the facts that ironworkershad to be brought into the country (2Chron. 2:14) and at onepoint the Israelites were dependent on a Philistine monopoly onblacksmithing (1Sam. 13:21).

Ironwas used widely to make many different types of objects, includingaxes (Deut. 19:5; 2Sam. 12:31; 2Kings 6:5), tools fordressing stone (though this is prohibited for the making of altars[Deut. 27:5; Josh. 8:31]) and for engraving stone (Job 19:24; Jer.17:1), yokes (Deut. 28:48; Jer. 28:13), shackles or chains (Pss.105:18; 107:10; 149:8), pans (Ezek. 4:3), sharpening tools (Prov.27:17; Eccles. 10:10), weapons (Num. 35:16; Job 20:24; Ps. 2:9), gateor door bolts (Deut. 33:25; Ps. 107:16), nails (1Chron. 22:3),chariots (referring only to a part of the axle assembly rather thanthe entire vehicle [Josh. 17:16; Judg. 1:19]), otherwise unspecifiedvessels or implements (Josh. 6:19), and agricultural implements(1Chron. 20:3; Amos 1:3 [archaeologists have also found plowpoints and other iron tools]). Amos 1:3 may also refer to the use ofiron tools as instruments of torture in wartime. Among the uses ofiron that may have been considered unusual for the time were for abed frame (Deut. 3:11) and for horns (1Kings 22:11).

Ironwas valuable enough to be listed in lists of plunder and treasure,alongside gold and silver (Num. 31:22; Josh. 6:19; 1Chron.22:14). It was taken from Jericho and dedicated to God’streasury (Josh. 6:24). David collected large quantities of iron toconstruct the temple; however, none of the stones for the temple oraltar were cut with iron tools on-site (1Kings 6:7). Iron wasan internationally traded commodity (Ezek. 27:19). It was lessvaluable than gold, silver, and bronze (1Chron. 29:7; Isa.60:17; Dan. 2:33–35) but more valuable than lead and tin (Ezek.22:20; 27:12).

Ironwas a symbol of superlative strength (Job 40:18) and, in the moralrealm, of stubbornness or rebelliousness (Isa. 48:4). The fierysmelting process represented testing, oppression, wrath, suffering,and drought (Lev. 26:19; Deut. 4:20; 1Kings 8:51; Jer. 11:4;Ezek. 22:18–20). In contrast to untarnished gold, the corrosiveoxidation of iron symbolized corruption (Jer. 6:28).

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